tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-66881238561680458832024-03-05T13:26:19.177-08:00MY INDIAINDIAN HISTORYAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comBlogger497125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-69861233509237463352013-02-03T21:11:00.000-08:002013-02-03T21:50:11.866-08:00Celts<br />
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The Celts or Kelts were an ethno-linguistic group of tribal societies in Iron Age and Medieval Europe who spoke Celtic languages and had a similar culture, although the relationship between the ethnic, linguistic and cultural elements remains uncertain and controversial.<br />
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The earliest archaeological culture that may justifiably be considered as Proto-Celtic is the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of central Europe from the last quarter of the second millennium BC. Their fully Celtic descendants in central Europe were the people of the Iron Age Hallstatt culture (c. 800-450 BC) named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria. By the later La Tène period (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest), this Celtic culture had expanded over a wide range of regions, whether by diffusion or migration: to the British Isles(Insular Celts), France and The Low Countries (Gauls), Bohemia, Poland and much of Central Europe, the Iberian Peninsula (Celtiberians,Celtici and Gallaeci) and northern Italy (Golaseccans and Cisalpine Gauls) and following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC as far east as central Anatolia (Galatians).<br />
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In recent years, tentative evidence has been adduced for a Celtic language in the Tartessian inscriptions of south Portugal and southwestSpain (dating 7th-5th centuries BC). Up until then, the earliest direct examples of a Celtic language had been the Leponticinscriptions, beginning from the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested only in inscriptions and place-names. Insular Celtic is attested from about the 4th century in ogham inscriptions, although it is clearly much earlier. Literary tradition begins with Old Irish from about the 8th century. Coherent texts of Early Irish literature, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge (The Cattle Raid of Cooley), survive in 12th-century recensions.<br />
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By mid 1st millennium AD, following the expansion of the Roman Empire and the Great Migrations (Migration Period) of Germanic peoples, Celtic culture and Insular Celtic had become restricted to Ireland, to the western and northern parts of Great Britain (Wales,Scotland, Cornwall and the Isle of Man), and to northern France (Brittany). Between the fifth and eighth centuries the Celtic-speaking communities of the Atlantic regions had emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. In language, religion, and art they shared a common heritage that distinguished them from the culture of surrounding polities. The Continental Celtic languages ceased to be widely used by the 6th century.<br />
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Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the Gaels (Irish, Scottish and Manx) and the Brythonic Celts (Welsh, Cornish, and Bretons) of the medieval and modern periods. A modern "Celtic identity" was constructed in the context of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Great Britain, Ireland, and other European territories, such as Portugal and Spanish Galicia. Today Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Bretonremain spoken in parts of their historical territories, and both Cornish and Manx are currently undergoing revival.<br />
<br /><br />The first recorded use of the word Celts (Κελτοί) to refer to an ethnic group was by Hecataeus of Miletus, the Greek geographer, in 517 BC, when writing about a people living near “Massilia” (Marseille). According to the testimony of Julius Caesar and Strabo, the Latin name Celtus (pl. Celti or Celtae) and the Greek were borrowed from a native Celtic tribal name. Pliny the Elder referred it as being used in Lusitania as a tribal surname which epigraphic findings confirm.<br /><br />Latin Gallus might originally be from a Celtic ethnic or tribal name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the Celtic expansions into Italy of the early 5th century BC. Its root may be the Common Celtic *galno, meaning power or strength. Galli, Gallaeci and Galatae most probably go with Old Irish gal ‘boldness, ferocity’ and Welshgallu ‘to be able, power’. The Greek Galatai seems to be based on the same root, borrowed directly from the same hypothetical Celtic source which gave us Galli(the suffix -atai is an Ancient Greek inflection) <br /><br />The English word Celt is modern, attested from 1707 in the writings of Edward Lhuyd whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of these early inhabitants of Great Britain. The English form Gaul (first recorded in the 17th century) and Gaulishcome from the French Gaule and Gaulois, which translate Latin Gallia and Gallus, -icus respectively. In Old French, the words gualeis, galois, walois (Northern French phonetics keeping /w/) had different meanings: Welsh or the Langue d'oïl, etc. On the other hand, the word Waulle (Northern French phonetics keeping /w/) is recorded for the first time in the 13th century to translate the Latin word Gallia, while gaulois is recorded for the first time in the 15th century, and the scholars use it to translate the Latin words Gallus, Gallicus. The word comes from Proto-Germanic *Walha- (see Gaul: Name). The English word Welsh originates from the word wælisċ, theAnglo-Saxon form of *walhiska-, the reconstructed Proto-Germanic word for ‘foreign’ or ‘Celt’ (South German Welsch(e) ‘Celtic speaker’, ‘French speaker’, ‘Italian speaker’; Old Norse valskr pl. valir ‘Gaulish’, ‘French’), that is supposed to be derived of the name of the Volcae, a Celtic tribe who lived first in the South of Germany and emigrated then to Gaul.<br /><br />The notion of an identifiable Celtic cultural identity or "Celticity", though problematic, generally centres on language, art and classical texts, though can also include, material artifacts, social organisation, homeland and mythology. Earlier theories were that this indicated a common racial origin but more recent theories are reflective of culture and language rather than race. Celtic cultures seem to have had numerous diverse characteristics but the commonality between these diverse peoples was the use of a Celtic language.<br /><br />Celtic refers to a family of languages and, more generally, means 'of the Celts or 'in the style of the Celts." Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic in nature, based on unique sets of artifacts. The link between language and artifact is aided by the presence of inscriptions. for other applications of the term.)<br /><br />Today, the term Celtic generally refers to the languages and respective cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, and Brittany, also known as theSix Celtic Nations. These are the regions where four Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent as mother tongues. The four are Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic,Welsh, and Breton; plus two recent revivals, Cornish (one of the Brythonic languages) and Manx (one of the Goidelic languages). There are also attempts to reconstruct the Cumbric language (a Brythonic language from North West England and South West Scotland). Celtic regions of Continental Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language has survived; these areas include the western Iberian Peninsula, i.e. Portugal, and north-central Spain(Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León, Extremadura).<br /><br />Continental Celts are the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe and Insular Celts are the Celtic-speaking peoples of the British and Irish islands and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating insular Celts, mainly from Wales and Cornwall, and so are grouped accordingly.<br /><br />The Celtic languages form a branch of the larger Indo-European family. By the time speakers of Celtic languages enter history around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of Western continental Europe, the Iberian Peninsula, Ireland and Britain.<br /><br />Some scholars think that the Urnfield culture of Western Middle Europe represents an origin for the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo-European family. This culture was preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age, from ca. 1200 BC until 700 BC, itself following the Unetice and Tumulus cultures. The Urnfield period saw a dramatic increase in population in the region, probably due to innovations in technology and agricultural practices. The Greek historian Ephoros of Cyme in Asia Minor, writing in the 4th century BC, believed that the Celts came from the islands off the mouth of the Rhine and were "driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and the violent rising of the sea".<br /><br />The spread of iron-working led to the development of the Hallstatt culture directly from the Urnfield (ca. 700 to 500 BC). Proto-Celtic, the latest common ancestor of all known Celtic languages, is considered by this school of thought to have been spoken at the time of the late Urnfield or early Hallstatt cultures, in the early 1st millennium BC. The spread of the Celtic languages to Iberia, Ireland and Britain would have occurred during the first half of the 1st millennium BC, the earliest chariot burials in Britain dating to c. 500 BC. Other scholars see Celtic languages as covering Britain and Ireland, and parts of the Continent, long before any evidence of "Celtic" culture is found in archaeology. Over the centuries the language(s) developed into the separate Celtiberian, Goidelic and Brythonic languages.<br /><br />The Hallstatt culture was succeeded by the La Tène culture of central Europe, which was overrun by the Roman Empire, though traces of La Tène style are still to be seen in Gallo-Roman artefacts. In Britain and Ireland La Tène style in art survived precariously to re-emerge inInsular art. Early Irish literature casts light on the flavour and tradition of the heroic warrior elites who dominated Celtic societies. Celtic river-names are found in great numbers around the upper reaches of the Danube and Rhine, which led many Celtic scholars to place theethnogenesis of the Celts in this area.<br /><br />Diodorus Siculus and Strabo both suggest that the heartland of the people they called Celts was in southern France. The former says that the Gauls were to the north of the Celts, but that the Romans referred to both as Gauls (in linguistic terms the Gauls were certainly Celts). Before the discoveries at Hallstatt and La Tene, it was generally considered that the Celtic heartland was southern France, see Encyclopædia Britannica for 1813.<div>
The Proto-Celtic language is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age. The earliest records of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul, the oldest of which still predate theLa Tène period. Other early inscriptions are Gaulish, appearing from the early La Tène period in inscriptions in the area of Massilia, in the Greek alphabet. Celtiberian inscriptions appear comparatively late, after about 200 BC. Evidence of Insular Celtic is available only from about 400 AD, in the form of Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions. Besides epigraphical evidence, an important source of information on early Celtic is toponymy. </div>
<br /><br />Before the 19th century, scholars assumed that the original land of the Celts was west of the Rhine, more precisely in Gaul, because it was where Greek and Roman ancient sources, namely Caesar, located the Celts. This view was challenged by Jubainville who placed the land of origin of the Celts east of the Rhine. Jubainville based his arguments on a phrase of Herodotus´ that placed the Celts at the source of the Danube, and argued that Herodotus had meant to place the Celtic homeland in southern Germany. The finding of the prehistoric cemetery of Hallstat in 1846 by Johan Ramsauer and almost ten years later the finding of the archaeological site of La Tène by Hansli Kopp in 1857 draw attention to this area. The concept that the Hallstatt and La Tene cultures could be seen not just as chronological periods but as “Culture Groups”, entities composed of people of the same ethnicity and language, started to grow by the end of the 19th century. In the beginning of the 20th century the belief that those “Culture Groups” could be thought in racial or ethnic terms was strongly held by Gordon Childe whose theory was influenced by the writings of Gustaf Kossinna. Along the 20th century the racial ethnic interpretation of La Tene culture rooted much stronger, and any findings of “La Tene culture” and “flat inhumation cemeteries” were directly associated with the celts and the celtic language. The Iron Age Hallstatt (c. 800-475 BC) and La Tène (c. 500-50 BC) cultures are typically associated with Proto-Celtic and Celtic culture.<br /><br />In various[clarification needed] academic disciplines the Celts were considered a Central European Iron Age phenomenon, through the cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. However, archaeological finds from the Halstatt and La Tène culture were rare in the Iberian Peninsula, in southwestern France, northern and western Britain, southern Ireland and Galatia and did not provide enough evidence for a cultural scenario comparable to that of Central Europe. It is considered equally difficult to maintain that the origin of the Peninsular Celts can be linked to the preceding Urnfield culture, leading to a more recent approach that introduces a 'proto-Celtic' substratum and a process of Celticisation having its initial roots in the Bronze Age Bell Beaker culture.<br /><br />The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. It developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break, under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from Greek, and later Etruscan civilisations. A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century.<br /><br />The western La Tène culture corresponds to historical Celtic Gaul. Whether this means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language, material culture, and political affiliation do not necessarily run parallel. Frey notes that in the 5th century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions". Thus, while the La Tène culture is certainly associated with the Gauls, the presence of La Tène artefacts may be due to cultural contact and does not imply the permanent presence of Celtic speakers.<br />Historical evidence<br /><br />Polybius published a history of Rome about 150 BC in which he describes the Gauls of Italy and their conflict with Rome.Pausanias in the 2nd century AD says that the Gauls "originally called Celts", "live on the remotest region of Europe on the coast of an enormous tidal sea". Posidonius described the southern Gauls about 100 BC. Though his original work is lost it was used by later writers such as Strabo. The latter, writing in the early 1st century AD, deals with Britain and Gaul as well as Hispania, Italy and Galatia. Caesar wrote extensively about his Gallic Wars in 58-51 BC. Diodorus Siculus wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his 1st-century history.<br />Minority views<br /><br />Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick accepted that "the Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might have to be dated to the Beaker period concluding that "There is no reason why so early a date for the coming of the Celts should be impossible". Martín Almagro Gorbea proposed the origins of the Celts could be traced back to the 3rd millennium BC, seeking the initial roots in the Bell Beaker culture, thus offering the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the different Celtic peoples, and the existence of ancestral traditions an ancient perspective. Using a multidisciplinary approach Alberto J. Lorrio and Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero reviewed and built on Almagro Gorbea's work to present a model for the origin of the Celtic archaeological groups in the Iberian Peninsula (Celtiberian, Vetton, Vaccean, the Castro Culture of the northwest, Asturian-Cantabrian and Celtic of the southwest) and proposing a rethinking the meaning of "Celtic" from a European perspective. More recently, John Koch and Barry Cunliffe have suggested that Celtic origins lie with the Atlantic Bronze Age, roughly contemporaneous with the Hallstatt culture but positioned considerably to the West, extending along the Atlantic coast of Europe.<br /><br />Stephen Oppenheimer points out that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the Pyrenees.<br /><br />At the dawn of history in Europe, the Celts then living in what is now France were known as Gauls to the Romans. The territory of these peoples probably included the low countries, the Alps and what is now northern Italy. Their descendants were described by Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars. Eastern Gaul was the centre of the western La Tène culture. In later Iron Age Gaul, the social organisation was similar to that of the Romans, with large towns. From the 3rd century BC the Gauls adopted coinage, and texts with Greek characters are known in southern Gaul from the 2nd century.<br /><br />Greek traders founded Massalia in about 600 BC, with exchange up the Rhone valley, but trade was disrupted soon after 500 BC and re-oriented over the Alps to the Po valley in Italy. The Romans arrived in the Rhone valley in the 2nd century BC and encountered a Gaul that was mostly Celtic-speaking. Rome needed land communications with its Iberian provinces and fought a major battle with the Saluvii at Entremont in 124-123 BC. Gradually Roman control extended, and the Roman Province of Gallia Transalpina was formed along the Mediterranean coast. The remainder was known as Gallia Comata - "Hairy Gaul".<br /><br />In 58 BC, the Helvetii planned to migrate westward but were forced back by Julius Caesar. He then became involved in fighting the various tribes in Gaul, and by 55 BC, most of Gaul had been overrun. In 52 BC, Vercingetorix led a revolt against the Roman occupation but was defeated at the siege of Alesia and surrendered.<br /><br />Following the Gallic Wars of 58-51 BC, Caesar's Celtica formed the main part of Roman Gaul. This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne. Place and personal name analysis and inscriptions suggest that the Gaulish Celtic language was spoken over most of what is now France.<br /><br />Until the end of the 19th century, traditional scholarship dealing with the Celts did acknowledge their presence in the Iberian Peninsula as a material culture relatable to the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. However, since according to the definition of the Iron Age in the 19th century Celtic populations were supposedly rare in Iberia and did not provide a cultural scenario that could easily be linked to that of Central Europe, the presence of celtic culture in that region was generally not fully recognised. Three divisions of the Celts of the Iberian Peninsula were assumed to have existed: the Celtiberians in the mountains near the centre of the peninsula, the Celtici in the southwest, and the celts in the northwest (in Gallaecia and Asturias).<br /><br />Modern scholarship, however, has clearly proven that Celtic presence and influences were most substantial in what is today Spain and Portugal (with perhaps the highest settlement saturation in Western Europe), particularly in the central, western and northern regions. The Celts in Iberia were divided into two main archaeological and cultural groups, even though that division is not very clear:<br />One group was spread out along Galicia and the Iberian Atlantic shores. They were made up of the Proto / Para-Celtic Lusitanians (in Portugal) and the Celtic region that Strabo calledCeltica in the southwestern Iberian peninsula, including the Algarve, which was inhabited by the Celtici, the Vettones and Vacceani peoples (of central-western Spain and Portugal), and the Gallaecian, Astures and Cantabrian peoples of the Castro culture of northern and northwestern Spain and Portugal.<br />The Celtiberian group of central Spain and the upper Ebro valley. This group originated when Celts (mainly Gauls and some Celtic-Germanic groups) migrated from what is now France and integrated with the local Iberian people.<br /><br />The origins of the Celtiberians might provide a key to understanding the Celticisation process in the rest of the Peninsula. The process of Celticisation of the southwestern area of the peninsula by the Keltoi and of the northwestern area is, however, not a simple Celtiberian question. Recent investigations about the Callaici and Bracari in northwestern Portugal are providing new approaches to understanding Celtic culture (language, art and religion) in western Iberia.<br /><br />John T. Koch of the University of Wales-Aberystwyth suggested that Tartessian inscriptions of the 8th century BC might already be classified as Celtic. This would mean that Tartessian is the earliest attested trace of Celtic by margin of more than a century.<br /><br />It had been known for some time that there was an early, although apparently somewhat limited, Celtic (Lepontic, sometimes called Cisalpine Celtic) presence in Northern Italy since inscriptions dated to the 6th century BC have been found there.<br /><br />The site of Golasecca, where the Ticino exits from Lake Maggiore, was particularly suitable for long-distance exchanges, in which Golaseccans acted as intermediaries between Etruscans and the Halstatt culture of Austria, supported on the all-important trade in salt.<br /><br />In 391 BC Celts "who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between theAppennine mountains and the Alps" according to Diodorus Siculus. The Po Valley and the rest of northern Italy (known to the Romans as Cisalpine Gaul) was inhabited by Celtic-speakers who founded cities such as Milan.[63] Later the Roman army was routed at the battle of Allia and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the Senones.<br /><br />At the battle of Telamon in 225 BC a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed.<br /><br />The defeat of the combined Samnite, Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the Third Samnite War sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe, but it was not until 192 BC that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy.<br /><br />The Celts also expanded down the Danube river and its tributaries. One of the most influential tribes, the Scordisci, had established their capital at Singidunum in 3rd century BC, which is present-day Belgrade, Serbia. The concentration of hill-forts and cemeteries shows a density of population in the Tisza valley of modern-day Vojvodina, Serbia, Hungary and into Ukraine. Expansion into Romaniawas however blocked by the Dacians.<br /><br />Further south, Celts settled in Thrace (Bulgaria), which they ruled for over a century, and Anatolia, where they settled as the Galatians(see also: Gallic Invasion of Greece). Despite their geographical isolation from the rest of the Celtic world, the Galatians maintained their Celtic language for at least 700 years. St Jerome, who visited Ancyra (modern-day Ankara) in 373 AD, likened their language to that of the Treveri of northern Gaul.<br /><br />For Venceslas Kruta, Galatia in central Turkey was an area of dense celtic settlement.<br /><br />The Boii tribe gave their name to Bohemia, Bologna and possibly Bavaria, and Celtic artefacts and cemeteries have been discovered further east in what is now Poland and Slovakia. A celtic coin (Biatec) from Bratislava's mint was displayed on the old Slovak 5-crown coin.<br /><br />As there is no archaeological evidence for large-scale invasions in some of the other areas, one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion.[64] However, the Celtic invasions of Italy and theexpedition in Greece and western Anatolia, are well documented in Greek and Latin history.<br /><br />There are records of Celtic mercenaries in Egypt serving the Ptolemies. Thousands were employed in 283-246 BC and they were also in service around 186 BC. They attempted to overthrow Ptolemy II.<br /><br />All Celtic languages extant today belong to the Insular Celtic languages, derived from the Celtic languages spoken in Iron Age Britain. They were separated into a Goidelic and a Brythonic branch from an early period.<br /><br />Linguists have been arguing for many years whether a Celtic language came to Britain and Ireland and then split or whether there were two separate "invasions". The older view of prehistorians was that the Celtic influence in the British Isles was the result of successive invasions from the European continent by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over the course of several centuries, accounting for the P-Celtic vs. Q-Celtic isogloss. This view has fallen into disfavour , to be replaced by the model of a phylogenetic Insular Celtic dialect group.<br /><br />In the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars commonly dated the "arrival" of Celtic culture in Britain (via an invasion model) to the 6th century BC., corresponding to archaeological evidence of Hallstatt influence and the appearance of chariot burials in what is now England. Some Iron Age migration does seem to have occurred but the nature of the interactions with the indigenous populations of the isles is unknown. In the late Iron Age. According to this model, by about the 6th century (Sub-Roman Britain), most of the inhabitants of the Isles were speaking Celtic languages of either the Goidelic or theBrythonic branch. Since the late 20th century, a new model has emerged (championed by archaeologists such as Barry Cunliffe and Celtic historians such as John T. Koch) which places the emergence of Celtic culture in Britain much earlier, in the Bronze Age, and credits its spread not to invasion, but due to a gradual emergence ''in situ'' out of Proto-Indo-European culture (perhaps introduced to the region by the Bell Beaker People, and enabled by an extensive network of contacts that existed between the peoples of Britain and Ireland and those of the Atlantic seaboard.<br /><br />Under Caesar the Romans conquered Celtic Gaul, and from Claudius onward the Roman empire absorbed parts of Britain. Roman local government of these regions closely mirrored pre-Roman tribal boundaries, and archaeological finds suggest native involvement in local government.<br /><br />The native peoples under Roman rule became Romanised and keen to adopt Roman ways. Celtic art had already incorporated classical influences, and surviving Gallo-Roman pieces interpret classical subjects or keep faith with old traditions despite a Roman overlay.<br /><br />The Roman occupation of Gaul, and to a lesser extent of Britain, led to Roman-Celtic syncretism. In the case of the continental Celts, this eventually resulted in a language shift to Vulgar Latin, while the Insular Celts retained their language.<br /><br />There was also considerable cultural influence exerted by Gaul on Rome, particularly in military matters and horsemanship, as the Gauls often served in the Roman cavalry. The Romans adopted the Celtic cavalry sword, the spatha, and Epona, the Celtic horse goddess.<br /><br />To the extent that sources are available, they depict a pre-Christian Iron Age Celtic social structure based formally on class and kingship, although this may only have been a particular late phase of organization in Celtic societies. Patron-client relationships similar to those of Roman society are also described by Caesar and others in the Gaul of the 1st century BC.<br /><br />In the main, the evidence is of tribes being led by kings, although some argue that there is also evidence of oligarchical republican forms of governmenteventually emerging in areas which had close contact with Rome. Most descriptions of Celtic societies portray them as being divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy; an intellectual class including professions such as druid, poet, and jurist; and everyone else. In historical times, the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of tanistry, which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle ofprimogeniture in which succession goes to the first born son.<br /><br />Little is known of family structure among the Celts. Patterns of settlement varied from decentralised to urban. The popular stereotype of non-urbanised societies settled in hillforts and duns, drawn from Britain and Ireland (there are about 3,000 hill forts known in Britain) contrasts with the urban settlements present in the core Hallstatt and La Tene areas, with the many significant oppida of Gaul late in the first millennium BC, and with the towns of Gallia Cisalpina.<br /><br />Slavery, as practised by the Celts, was very likely similar to the better documented practice in ancient Greece and Rome. Slaves were acquired from war, raids, and penal and debt servitude. Slavery was hereditary[citation needed], though manumission was possible. The Old Irish word for slave,cacht, and the Welsh term caeth are likely derived from the Latin captus, captive, suggesting that slave trade was an early venue of contact between Latin and Celtic societies. In the Middle Ages, slavery was especially prevalent in the Celtic countries. Manumissions were discouraged by law and the word for "female slave", cumal, was used as a general unit of value in Ireland.<br /><br />Archaeological evidence suggests that the pre-Roman Celtic societies were linked to the network of overland trade routes that spanned Eurasia. Archaeologists have discovered large prehistoric trackways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany. Due to their substantial nature, these are believed to have been created for wheeled transport as part of an extensive roadway system that facilitated trade. The territory held by the Celts contained tin, lead, iron, silver and gold. Celtic smiths and metalworkers created weapons andjewellery for international trade, particularly with the Romans.<br /><br />The myth that the Celtic monetary system consisted of wholly barter is a common one, but is in part false. The monetary system was complex and is still not understood (much like the late Roman coinages), and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items, it is assumed that "proto-money" was used. This included bronze items made from the early<div>
La Tene period and onwards, which were often in the shape of axeheads, rings, or bells. Due to the large number of these present in some burials, it is thought they had a relatively high monetary value, and could be used for "day to day" purchases. Low-value coinages of potin, a bronze alloy with high tin content, were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South-East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands. Higher-value coinages, suitable for use in trade, were minted in gold, silver, and high-quality bronze. Gold coinage was much more common than silver coinage, despite being worth substantially more, as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France, silver was more rarely mined. This was due partly to the relative sparcity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained. As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world, silver and bronze coinage became more common. This coincided with a major increase in gold production in Celtic areas to meet the Roman demand, due to the high value Romans put on the metal. The large number of gold mines in France is thought to be a major reason why Caesar invaded.</div>
<br /><br />There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages. These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman and sometimes Greek alphabets. The Ogham script, an Early Medieval alphabet, was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland (but also in Wales and England), and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones. The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition, such as that preserved by bards in Ireland, and eventually recorded by monasteries. The oldest recorded rhyming poetry in the world is of Irish origin and is a transcription of a much older epic poem, leading some scholars to claim that the Celts invented rhyme. Celtic art also produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites.<br /><br />In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative: for example, they still used chariots in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans. However, despite being outdated, Celtic chariot tactics were able to repel the invasion of Britain attempted by Julius Caesar.<br /><br />According to Diodorus Siculus:<br /><span style="color: red;">The Gauls are tall of body with rippling muscles and white of skin and their hair is blond, and not only naturally so for they also make it their practice by artificial means to increase the distinguishing colour which nature has given it. For they are always washing their hair in limewater and they pull it back from the forehead to the nape of the neck, with the result that their appearance is like that of Satyrs and Pans since the treatment of their hair makes it so heavy and coarse that it differs in no respect from the mane of horses. Some of them shave the beard but others let it grow a little; and the nobles shave their cheeks but they let the moustache grow until it covers the mouth.<br />—Diodorus Siculus</span><div>
During the later Iron Age the Gauls generally wore long-sleeved shirts or tunics and long trousers (called braccae by the Romans). Clothes were made of wool or linen, with some silk being used by the rich. Cloaks were worn in the winter. Brooches and armlets were used, but the most famous item of jewellery was the torc, a neck collar of metal, sometimes gold. The horned Waterloo Helmet in the British Museum, which long set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors, is in fact a unique survival, and may have been a piece for ceremonial rather than military wear.</div>
<br /><br />According to Aristotle, most "belligerent nations" were strongly influenced by their women, but the Celts were unusual because their men openly preferred male lovers. H. D. Rankin in Celts and the Classical World notes that "Athenaeus echoes this comment (603a) and so does Ammianus . It seems to be the general opinion of antiquity." In book XIII of his Deipnosophists, the Roman Greek rhetorician and grammarian Athenaeus, repeating assertions made by Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC (Bibliotheca historica 5:32), wrote that Celtic women were beautiful but that the men preferred to sleep together. Diodorus went further, stating that "the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused". Rankin argues that the ultimate source of these assertions is likely to be Poseidonius and speculates that these authors may be recording male "bonding rituals". <br /><br />The sexual freedom of women in Britain was noted by Cassius Dio: <br />...a very witty remark is reported to have been made by the wife of Argentocoxus, a Caledonian, to Julia Augusta. When the empress was jesting with her, after the treaty, about the free intercourse of her sex with men in Britain, she replied: "We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women; for we consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest." Such was the retort of the British woman.<br />—Cassius Dio<br /><br />There are instances recorded where women participated both in warfare and in kingship, although they were in the minority in these areas. Plutarchreports that Celtic women acted as ambassadors to avoid a war among Celts chiefdoms in the Po valley during the 4th century BC. <br /><br />Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views towards gender divisions and societal statues, though some archaeological evidence does suggest that their views towards gender roles may differ from contemporary and less egalitarian classical counterparts of the Roman era. <br />There are some general indications from Iron Age burial sites in the Champagne and Bourgogne regions of Northeastern France suggesting that women may have had roles in combat during the earlier La Tène period. However, the evidence is far from conclusive. Examples of individuals buried with both female jewellery and weaponry have been identified, such as the Vix Grave, and there are questions about the gender of some skeletons that were buried with warrior assemblages. However, it has been suggested that "the weapons may indicate rank instead of masculinity". <br /><br />Among the insular Celts, there is a greater amount of historic documentation to suggest warrior roles for women. In addition to commentary by Tacitusabout Boudica, there are indications from later period histories that also suggest a more substantial role for "women as warriors", in symbolic if not actual roles. Posidonius and Strabo described an island of women where men could not venture for fear of death, and where the women ripped each other apart. Other writers, such as Ammianus Marcellinus and Tacitus, mentioned Celtic women inciting, participating in, and leading battles. Poseidonius' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes, primarily primitivism, extreme ferocity, cruel sacrificial practices, and the strength and courage of their women. <br /><br />Under Brehon Law, which was written down in early Medieval Ireland after conversion to Christianity, a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his marital duties due to impotence, obesity, homosexual inclination or preference for other women. <br /><br />Celtic art is generally used by art historians to refer to art of the La Tène period across Europe, while the Early Medieval art of Britain and Ireland, that is what "Celtic art" evokes for much of the general public, is called Insular art in art history. Both styles absorbed considerable influences from non-Celtic sources, but retained a preference for geometrical decoration over figurative subjects, which are often extremely stylised when they do appear; narrative scenes only appear under outside influence. Energetic circular forms, triskeles and spirals are characteristic. Much of the surviving material is in precious metal, which no doubt gives a very unrepresentative picture, but apart from Pictish stones and the Insular high crosses, large monumental sculpture, even with decorative carving, is very rare; possibly it was originally common in wood.<br /><br />The interlace patterns that are often regarded as typical of "Celtic art" were in fact introduced to Insular art from the animal Style II of GermanicMigration Period art, though taken up with great skill and enthusiasm by Celtic artists in metalwork and illuminated manuscripts. Equally, the forms used for the finest Insular art were all adopted from the Roman world: Gospel books like the Book of Kells and Book of Lindisfarne, chalices like theArdagh Chalice and Derrynaflan Chalice, and penannular brooches like the Tara Brooch. These works are from the period of peak achievement of Insular art, which lasted from the 7th to the 9th centuries, before the Viking attacks sharply set back cultural life.<br /><br />In contrast the less well known but often spectacular art of the richest earlier Continental Celts, before they were conquered by the Romans, often adopted elements of Roman, Greek and other "foreign" styles (and possibly used imported craftsmen) to decorate objects that were distinctively Celtic. After the Roman conquests, some Celtic elements remained in popular art, especially Ancient Roman pottery, of which Gaul was actually the largest producer, mostly in Italian styles, but also producing work in local taste, including figurines of deities and wares painted with animals and other subjects in highly formalised styles. Roman Britain also took more interest in enamel than most of the Empire, and its development of champlevétechnique was probably important to the later Medieval art of the whole of Europe, of which the energy and freedom of Insular decoration was an important element.<br /><br />Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, foreconomic advantage, and in some instances to conquer territory.<br />The Celts were described by classical writers such as Strabo, Livy, Pausanias, and Florus as fighting like "wild beasts", and as hordes. Dionysius said that their "manner of fighting, being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking in military science. Thus, at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of wild boars, throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks, and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target, as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries, protective armour and all". Such descriptions have been challenged by contemporary historians.<br /><br />Polybius (2.33) indicates that the principal Celtic weapon was a long bladed sword which was used for hacking edgewise rather than stabbing. Celtic warriors are described by Polybius and Plutarch as frequently having to cease fighting in order to straighten their sword blades. This claim has been questioned by some archaeologists, who note that Noric steel, steel produced in Celtic Noricum, was famous in the Roman Empire period and was used to equip the Roman military. However, Radomir Pleiner, in The Celtic Sword (1993) argues that "the metallographic evidence shows that Polybius was right up to a point", as around one third of surviving swords from the period might well have behaved as he describes.<br /><br />Polybius also asserts that certain of the Celts fought naked, "The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle, for they were all men of splendid physique and in the prime of life." According to Livy this was also true of the Celts of Asia Minor.<br /><br />Celts had a reputation as head hunters. According to Paul Jacobsthal, "Amongst the Celts the human head was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world." Arguments for a Celtic cult of the severed head include the many sculptured representations of severed heads in La Tène carvings, and the surviving Celtic mythology, which is full of stories of the severed heads of heroes and the saints who carry their decapitated heads, right down to Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, where theGreen Knight picks up his own severed head after Gawain has struck it off, just as St. Denis carried his head to the top of Montmartre.<br /><br />A further example of this regeneration after beheading lies in the tales of Connemara's St. Feichin, who after being beheaded by Viking pirates carried his head to the Holy Well on Omey Island and on dipping the head into the well placed it back upon his neck and was restored to full health.<br /><br />Diodorus Siculus, in his 1st century History had this to say about Celtic head-hunting:<br />They cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle and attach them to the necks of their horses. The blood-stained spoils they hand over to their attendants and striking up a paean and singing a song of victory; and they nail up these first fruits upon their houses, just as do those who lay low wild animals in certain kinds of hunting. They embalm in cedar oil the heads of the most distinguished enemies, and preserve them carefully in a chest, and display them with pride to strangers, saying that for this head one of their ancestors, or his father, or the man himself, refused the offer of a large sum of money. They say that some of them boast that they refused the weight of the head in gold<br /><br />In Gods and Fighting Men, Lady Gregory's Celtic Revival translation of Irish mythology, heads of men killed in battle are described in the beginning of the story The Fight With The Fir Bolgs as pleasing to Macha, one aspect of the war goddess Morrigu.<br /><br />Like other European Iron Age tribal societies, the Celts practised a polytheistic religion. Many Celtic gods are known from texts and inscriptions from the Roman period. Rites and sacrifices were carried out by priests known as druids. The Celts did not see their gods as having human shapes until late in the Iron Age. Celtic shrines were situated in remote areas such as hilltops, groves, and lakes.<br /><br />Celtic religious patterns were regionally variable; however, some patterns of deity forms, and ways of worshipping these deities, appeared over a wide geographical and temporal range. The Celts worshipped both gods and goddesses. In general, Celtic gods were deities of particular skills, such as the many-skilled Lugh and Dagda, while goddesses were associated with natural features, particularly rivers (such as Boann, goddess of the River Boyne). This was not universal, however, as goddesses such as Brighid and The Morrígan were associated with both natural features (holy wells and the River Unius) and skills such as blacksmithing and healing.<br />Triplicity is a common theme in Celtic cosmology, and a number of deities were seen as threefold. This trait is exhibited by The Three Mothers, a group of goddesses worshipped by many Celtic tribes (with regional variations).<br />The Celts had literally hundreds of deities, some of which were unknown outside a single family or tribe, while others were popular enough to have a following that crossed lingual and cultural barriers. For instance, the Irish god Lugh, associated with storms, lightning, and culture, is seen in similar forms as Lugos in Gaul and Lleu in Wales. Similar patterns are also seen with the continental Celtic horse goddess Epona and what may well be her Irish and Welsh counterparts, Macha and Rhiannon, respectively.<br /><br />Roman reports of the druids mention ceremonies being held in sacred groves. La Tène Celts built temples of varying size and shape, though they also maintained shrines at sacred trees and votive pools.<br /><br />Druids fulfilled a variety of roles in Celtic religion, serving as priests and religious officiants, but also as judges, sacrificers, teachers, and lore-keepers. Druids organised and ran religious ceremonies, and they memorised and taught the calendar. Other classes of druids performed ceremonial sacrifices of crops and animals for the perceived benefit of the community.<br /><br /><br />The Coligny calendar, which was found in 1897 in Coligny, Ain, was engraved on a bronze tablet, preserved in 73 fragments, that originally was 1.48 m wide and 0.9 m high (Lambert p. 111). Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects, it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century. It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals, and is in the Gallic language. The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns, with 62 months distributed over 5 years.<br /><br />The French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by druids wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the Julian calendar was imposed throughout the Roman Empire. However, the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars (or parapegmata) found throughout the Greek and Roman world.<br /><br /><br />The Roman invasion of Gaul brought a great deal of Celtic peoples into the Roman Empire. Roman culture had a profound effect on the Celtic tribes which came under the empire's control. Roman influence led to many changes in Celtic religion, the most noticeable of which was the weakening of the druid class, especially religiously; the druids were to eventually disappear altogether. Romano-Celtic deities also began to appear: these deities often had both Roman and Celtic attributes and combined the names of Roman and Celtic deities. Other changes included the adaptation of the Jupiter Pole, a sacred pole which was used throughout Celtic regions of the empire, primarily in the north. Another major change in religious practice was the use of stone monuments to represent gods and goddesses. The Celts had only created wooden idols (including monuments carved into trees, which were known as sacred poles) previously to Roman conquest.<div>
While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire, unconquered areas of Ireland and Scotland moved from Celtic polytheism to Christianity in the 5th century. Ireland was converted under missionaries from Britain, such as Patrick. Later missionaries from Ireland were a major source of missionary work in Scotland, Saxon parts of Britain, and central Europe. . Celtic Christianity, the forms of Christianity that took hold in Britain and Ireland at this time, have carried traditions distinct from the rest of Western Christianity. The development of Christianity in Ireland and Britain brought an early medieval renaissance of Celtic art between 390 and 1200 AD. Many of the styles now thought of as typically "Celtic" developed in this period, and are found throughout much of Ireland and Britain, including the northeast and far north of Scotland, Orkney and Shetland. Notable works produced during this period include the Book of Kells and the Ardagh Chalice. Antiquarian interest from the 17th century led to the term Celtbeing extended, and rising nationalism brought Celtic revivals from the 19th century.</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-84750073699501562962013-02-02T04:57:00.005-08:002013-02-03T21:12:08.108-08:00Herodotus<span style="font-size: large;"><i><br /><br />Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria (modern day Bodrum, Turkey) and lived in the fifth century BC (c.484 – 425 BC). He has been called the "Father of History", and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a well-constructed and vivid narrative. The Histories—his masterpiece and the only work he is known to have produced—is a record of his "inquiry" historía, a word that passed into Latin and acquired its modern meaning of "history"), being an investigation of the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars and including a wealth of geographical and ethnographical information. Although some of his stories were fanciful, he claimed he was reporting only what had been told to him. Little is known of his personal history. <br /><br />The Histories, otherwise known as The Researches or The Inquiries, were divided by later Alexandrian editors into nine books, named after the nineMuses: the "Muse of History", Clio, representing the first book, then Euterpe, Thaleia, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Erato, Polymnia, Ourania andCalliope for books 2 to 9, respectively. At its simplest and broadest level of meaning, The Histories is structured as a dynastic history of four Persian kings:<br />Cyrus, 557–530 BC: Book 1;<br />Cambyses, 530–522 BC: Book 2 and part of Book 3;<br />Darius, 521–486 BC: the rest of Book 3 then Books 4, 5 and 6;<br />Xerxes, 486–479 BC: Books 7, 8 and 9.<br /><br />Within this basic structure, the author traces the way the Persians developed a custom of conquest and shows how their habits of thinking about the world finally brought about their downfall inGreece. Some commentators have argued the story of the first three kings must have been originally planned as a history of Persia and the story of Xerxes, later added to it instead is a history of the Persian Wars. Whatever the original plan might have been, the larger, historical account is often merely a background to a broad range of inquiries and, as Herodotus himself observes, "Digressions are part of my plan." (Book 4, 30)<br /><br />The digressions can be understood to cover two themes: an account of the history of the entire known world as governed by the principle of reciprocity (or what today might be more commonly called an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth and one good turn deserves another); and an account of the many astonishing reports and sights gained by the author during his extensive travels. The reader is therefore presented with a diversity of human experiences and settings within the context of an overarching historical order. The narrative structure allows for this diversity through simple stylistic devices such as the principle of ring composition, familiar since the time of Homer, in which the introduction and conclusion of a story or sub-plot is signalled by the repetition of some formulaic statement, facilitating the reader's comprehension of stories within stories in a kind of 'Chinese-box technique'—a structure that has no resemblance to the nine books artificially created by Alexandrian scholars. Herodotus's method of enquiry presents a world where everything is potentially important —this at a time when philosophers increasingly sought to understand the world according to basic principles. The work in fact was something of an anachronism. Yet those who did not appreciate it as model of history could still admire the style of writing—as Dionysius of Halicarnassus praises its sweetness and charm (De Thuc. 23). Herodotus employs a deceptively simple narrative style, in which the original Greek is Ionian indialect, including some Homeric and other forms.<br /><br /><br /><br />Herodotus announced the size and scope of his work at the beginning of his Researches or Histories:<br /><br /><br />Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, ὡς μήτε τὰ γενόμενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν Ἕλλησι, τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τὰ τε ἄλλα καὶ δι' ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι.[12]<br /><br />Translation:<br />Herodotus of Halicarnassus, his Researches are here set down to preserve the memory of the past by putting on record the astonishing achievements both of our own and of other peoples; and more particularly, to show how they came into conflict.[13]<br /><br />His record of the achievements of others was an achievement in itself, though the extent of it has been debated. His place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked. His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact. However, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a literary critic of Augustan Rome, listed seven predecessors of Herodotus, describing their works as simple, unadorned accounts of their own and other cities and people, Greek or foreign, including popular legends, sometimes melodramatic and naive, often charming - all traits that can be found in the work of Herodotus himself.[14] Modern historians regard the chronology as uncertain but, according to the ancient account, these predecessors included for example Dionysius of Miletus, Charon of Lampsacus, Hellanicus of Lesbos, Xanthus of Lydia and, the best attested of them all, Hecataeus of Miletus. Only fragments of the latter's work survive (and the authenticity of these is debatable)[15] yet they allow us glimpses into the kind of tradition within which Herodotus wrote his own Histories, as for example in the introduction to Hecataeus's work,Genealogies:<br /><br /><br />Hecataeus the Milesian speaks thus: I write these things as they seem true to me; for the stories told by the Greeks are various and in my opinion absurd.[16]<br /><br />This points forward to the 'folksy' yet 'international' outlook typical of Herodotus. Yet, one modern scholar, reading between the lines, has described the work of Hecataeus as "a curious false start to history"[17] because, despite its critical spirit, it failed to liberate history from myth. Herodotus actually mentions Hecataeus in his Histories, on one occasion mocking him for his naive genealogy and, on another occasion, quoting Athenian complaints against his handling of their national history.[18] It is possible that Herodotus borrowed much material from Hecataeus, as stated by Porphyry in a quote recorded by Eusebius.[19] In particular, it is possible that he copied descriptions of the crocodile, hippopotamus and phoenix from Hecataeus's 'Circumnavigation of the Known World' (Periegesis/Periodos ges), even mis-representing the source as 'Heliopolitans' (Histories 2.73).[20] But unlike Herodotus, Hecataeus did not record events that had occurred in living memory, nor did he include the oral traditions of Greek history within the larger framework of oriental history.[21] There is no proof that Herodotus derived the ambitious scope of his own work, with its grand theme of civilizations in conflict, from any predecessor, despite much scholarly speculation about this in modern times.[17][22] Herodotus claims to be better informed than his predecessors, relying on empirical observation to correct their excessive schematism. For example, he argues for continental asymmetry as opposed to the older theory of a perfectly circular earth with Europe and Asia/Africa equal in size (Hist. 4.36 and 4.42). Yet, he retains idealising tendencies, as in his symmetrical notions of the Danube and Nile.[23]<br /><br />His debt to previous authors of prose 'histories' might be questionable but there is no doubt that he owed much to the example and inspiration of poets and story-tellers. For example, Athenian tragic poets provided him with a world-view of a balance between conflicting forces, upset by the hubris of kings, and they provided his narrative with a model of episodic structure. His familiarity with Athenian tragedy is demonstrated, for example, in a number of passages echoing Aeschylus's Persae, including the epigrammatic observation that the defeat of the Persian navy at Salamiscaused the defeat of the land army (Hist. 8.68 ~ Persae 728). The debt may have been repaid by Sophocles because there appear to be echoes of The Histories in his plays, especially a passage in Antigone that resembles Herodotus's account of the death of Intaphernes (Histories 3.119 ~ Antigone 904-20)[24] - this however is one of the most contentious issues in modern scholarship.[25]<br /><br />Homer was another inspirational source.<br /><br /><br />"In the scheme and plan of his work, in the arrangement and order of its parts, in the tone and character of the thoughts, in ten thousand little expressions and words, the Homeric student appears." - George Rawlinson[26]<br /><br />Just as Homer drew extensively on a tradition of oral poetry, sung by wandering minstrels, so Herodotus appears to have drawn on an Ionian tradition of story-telling, collecting and interpreting the oral histories he chanced upon in his travels. These oral histories often contained folk-tale motifs and demonstrated a moral, yet they also contained substantial facts relating to geography, anthropology and history, all compiled by Herodotus in an entertaining style and format.[27] It is on account of the many strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics in early modern times branded him 'The Father of Lies'.[28] Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement. In fact one modern scholar[29] has wondered if Herodotus left his home in Asiatic Greece, migrating westwards to Athens and beyond, because his own countrymen had ridiculed his work, a circumstance possibly hinted at in an epitaph said to have been dedicated to Herodotus at Thuria (one of his three supposed resting places):Herodotus the son of Lyxes hereLies; in Ionic history without peer;A Dorian born, who fled from Slander's brandAnd made in Thuria his new native land.[30]<br /><br />Yet it was in Athens where his most formidable contemporary critics could be found. In 425 BC, which is about the time that Herodotus is thought by many scholars to have died, the Athenian comic dramatist, Aristophanes, created The Acharnians, in which he blames The Peloponnesian War on the abduction of some prostitutes - a mocking reference to Herodotus, who reported the Persians' account of their wars with Greece, beginning with the rapes of the mythical heroines Io, Europa, Medea and Helen.[31][32] Similarly, the Athenian historian Thucydides dismissed Herodotus as a 'logos-writer' or story-teller.[33] Thucydides, who had been trained in rhetoric, became the model for subsequent prose-writers as an author who seeks to appear firmly in control of his material, whereas Herodotus with his frequent digressions appeared to minimize (or possibly disguise) his auctorial control.[34] Moreover, Thucydides developed a historical topic more in keeping with the Greek lifestyle - the polis or city-state - whereas the interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Asiatic Greeks (such as Herodotus himself), for whom life under foreign rule was a recent memory.[33]<br /><br />Although The Histories were often criticized in antiquity for bias, inaccuracy and plagiarism—Lucian of Samosata attacked Herodotus as a liar in Verae Historiae and went as far as to deny him a place among the famous on the Island of the Blessed—modern historians and philosophers take a more positive view of Herodotus's methodology, especially those searching for a paradigm of objective historical writing. A few modern scholars have argued that Herodotus exaggerated the extent of his travels and invented his sources[35] yet his reputation continues largely intact: "The Father of History is also the father of comparative anthropology",[28] "the father of ethnography",[36] and he is "more modern than any other ancient historian in his approach to the ideal of total history".[7]<br /><br /><br />"Before the Persian crisis history had been represented among the Greeks only by local or family traditions. The Wars of Liberation had given to Herodotus the first genuinely historical inspiration felt by a Greek. These wars showed him that there was a corporate life, higher than that of the city, of which the story might be told; and they offered to him as a subject the drama of the collision between East and West. With him, the spirit of history was born into Greece; and his work, called after the nine Muses, was indeed the first utterance ofClio."—Richard Claverhouse Jebb.[37]<br />[edit]Life<br />[edit]As told by other "liars"<br /><br />As mentioned earlier, Herodotus has sometimes been labeled "The Father of Lies" because of his tendency to report fanciful information. Much of the information that others subsequently reported about him is just as fanciful and some of it is vindictive or blatantly absurd, yet it is interesting and therefore worth reporting. Herodotus himself reported dubious information if it was interesting, sometimes adding his own opinion about its reliability.<br /><br />Some "calumnious fictions" were written about Herodotus in a work titled On the Malice of Herodotus, by Plutarch, a Theban by birth, (or it might have been a Pseudo-Plutarch, in this case "a great collector of slanders"), including the allegation that the historian was prejudiced against Thebes because the authorities there had denied him permission to set up a school.[38] Similarly, in a Corinthian Oration, Dio Chrysostom (or yet another pseudonymous author) accused the historian of prejudice against Corinth, sourcing it in personal bitterness over financial disappointments[39] - an account also given by Marcellinus in his Life of Thucydides.[40] In fact Herodotus was in the habit of seeking out information from empowered sources within communities, such as aristocrats and priests, and this also occurred at an international level, with Periclean Athens becoming his principal source of information about events in Greece. As a result, his reports about Greek events are often coloured by Athenian bias against rival states - Thebes and Corinth in particular.[41] Thus the allegations promoted by 'Plutarch' and 'Chrysostom' may be regarded as 'pay-back'.<br /><br />Herodotus wrote his Histories in the Ionian dialect yet he was born in Halicarnassus, originally a Dorian settlement. According to the Suda (an 11th-century encyclopaedia of Byzantium which likely took its information from traditional accounts), Herodotus learned the Ionian dialect as a boy living on the island of Samos, whither he had fled with his family from the oppressions of Lygdamis, tyrant of Halicarnassus and grandson of Artemisia I of Caria. The Suda also informs us that Herodotus later returned home to lead the revolt that eventually overthrew the tyrant. However, thanks to recent discoveries of some inscriptions on Halicarnassus, dated to about that time, we now know that the Ionic dialect was used there even in official documents, so there was no need to assume like the Suda that he must have learned the dialect elsewhere.[42] Moreover, the fact that the Suda is the only source we have for the heroic role played by Herodotus, as liberator of his birthplace, is itself a good reason to doubt such a romantic account.[43]<br /><br />It was conventional in Herodotus's day for authors to 'publish' their works by reciting them at popular festivals. According to Lucian, Herodotus took his finished work straight from Asia Minor to the Olympic Games and read the entire Histories to the assembled spectators in one sitting, receiving rapturous applause at the end of it.[44] According to a very different account by an ancient grammarian,[45] Herodotus refused to begin reading his work at the festival of Olympia until some clouds offered him a bit of shade, by which time however the assembly had dispersed - thus the proverbial expression "Herodotus and his shade" to describe any man who misses his opportunity through delay. Herodotus's recitation at Olympia was a favourite theme among ancient writers and there is another interesting variation on the story to be found in the Suda, Photius[46] and Tzetzes,[47] in which a young Thucydides happened to be in the assembly with his father and burst into tears during the recital, whereupon Herodotus observed prophetically to the boy's father: "Thy son's soul yearns for knowledge."<br /><br />Eventually, Thucydides and Herodotus became close enough for both to be interred in Thucydides' tomb in Athens. Such at least was the opinion of Marcellinus in his Life of Thucydides.[48]According to the Suda, he was buried in Macedonian Pella and in the agora in Thurium.[49]<br />[edit]As told by other historians<br /><br />Modern scholars generally turn to Herodotus's own writing for reliable information about his life,[50] very carefully supplemented with other ancient yet much later sources, such as the Byzantine Suda:<br /><br /><br />"The data are so few - they rest upon such late and slight authority; they are so improbable or so contradictory, that to compile them into a biography is like building a house of cards, which the first breath of criticism will blow to the ground. Still, certain points may be approximately fixed..." - George Rawlinson.[51]<br /><br />Typically modern accounts of his life go something like this:[52][53] Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus around 484 BC. There is no reason to disbelieve the Suda's information about his family, that it was influential and that he was the son of Lyxes and Dryo, and the brother of Theodorus, and that he was also related to Panyassis, an epic poet of the time. The town was within the Persian empire at that time and maybe the young Herodotus heard local eye-witness accounts of events within the empire and of Persian preparations for the invasion of Greece, including the movements of the local fleet under the command of Artemisia. Inscriptions recently discovered at Halicarnassus indicate that her grandson Lygdamis negotiated with a local assembly to settle disputes over seized property, which is consistent with a tyrant under pressure, and his name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian Delian League, indicating that there might well have been a successful uprising against him sometime before 454 BC. Herodotus reveals affection for the island of Samos (III, 39-60) and this is an indication that he might have lived there in his youth. So it is possible that his family was involved in an uprising against Lygdamis, leading to a period of exile on Samos and followed by some personal hand in the tyrant's eventual fall.<br /><br />As Herodotus himself reveals, Halicarnassus, though a Dorian city, had ended its close relations with its Dorian neighbours after an unseemly quarrel (I, 144), and it had helped pioneer Greek trade with Egypt (II,178). It was therefore an outward-looking, international-minded port within the Persian Empire and the historian's family could well have had contacts in countries under Persian rule, facilitating his travels and his researches. His eye-witness accounts indicate that he travelled in Egypt probably sometime after 454 BC or possibly earlier in association with Athenians, after an Athenian fleet had assisted the uprising against Persian rule in 460-454 BC. He probably travelled to Tyre next and then down the Euphrates to Babylon. For some reason, probably associated with local politics, he subsequently found himself unpopular in Halicarnassus and, sometime around 447 BC, he migrated to Periclean Athens, a city for whose people and democratic institutions he declares his open admiration (V, 78) and where he came to know not just leading citizens such as the Alcmaeonids, a clan whose history features frequently in his writing, but also the local topography (VI, 137; VIII, 52-5). According to Eusebius[54] and Plutarch,[55] Herodotus was granted a financial reward by the Athenian assembly in recognition of his work and there may be some truth in this. It is possible that he applied for Athenian citizenship - a rare honour after 451 BC, requiring two separate votes by a well-attended assembly - but was unsuccessful. In 443 BC, or shortly afterwards, he migrated to Thurium as part of an Athenian-sponsored colony. Aristotle refers to a version of The Histories written by 'Herodotus of Thurium' and indeed some passages in the Histories have been interpreted as proof that he wrote about southern Italy from personal experience there (IV, 15, 99; VI 127). Intimate knowledge of some events in the first years of the Peloponnesian War (VI,91; VII,133,233; IX,73) indicate that he might have returned to Athens, in which case it is possible that he died there during an outbreak of the plague. Possibly he died in Macedonia instead after obtaining the patronage of the court there or else he died back in Thurium. Either way, there is nothing in the Histories that can be dated with any certainty later than 430 and it is generally assumed that he died not long afterwards, possibly before his sixtieth year.<br />[edit]Analysis and recent discoveries<br />Circumstances rule men; men do not rule circumstances.<br />—Herodotus, Histories 7.49<br /><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Herodotus_world_map-en.svg/300px-Herodotus_world_map-en.svg.png" /><br /><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf8/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" />Reconstruction of the Oikoumene (inhabited world) - ancient map from Herodotus, c. 450 BC.<br /><br />Herodotus provides much intriguing information about the nature of the world and the status of science during his lifetime, often engaging in private speculation.<br /><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Claude_Vignon_Croesus.jpg/200px-Claude_Vignon_Croesus.jpg" /><br /><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf8/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" />Croesus Receiving Tribute from a Lydian Peasant, by Claude Vignon.<br /><br />For example, he reports that the annual flooding of the Nile was said to be the result of melting snows far to the south, and he comments that he cannot understand how there can be snow in Africa, the hottest part of the known world, offering an elaborate explanation based on the way that desert winds affect the passage of the Sun over this part of the world (2:18ff). He also passes on dismissive reports from Phoenician sailors that, while circumnavigating Africa, they "saw the sun on the right side while sailing westwards". Owing to this brief mention, which is included almost as an afterthought, it has been argued that Africa was indeed circumnavigated by ancient seafarers, for this is precisely where the sun ought to have been. His accounts of India are among the oldest records of Indian civilization by an outsider.[56]<br /><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Goldinpan.jpg/150px-Goldinpan.jpg" /><br /><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf8/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" />Gold dust and nuggets.<br /><br />Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century have both added to and detracted from his credibility. His description of Gelonus, located in Scythia, as a city thousands of times larger thanTroy was widely disbelieved until it was rediscovered in 1975. The archaeological study of the now-submerged ancient Egyptian city of Heracleion and the recovery of the so-called "Naucratis stela" give extensive credibility to Herodotus's previously unsupported claim that Heracleion was founded during the Egyptian New Kingdom.<br /><br />Other claims he made are inconsistent with archeological and cuneiform document evidence. For instance, his account of the Medes appears to accord poorly with Assyrian and Babylonian records and with archeological evidence.[citation needed]<br /><br />One of the most recent developments in Herodotus scholarship was made by the French ethnologist Michel Peissel. On his journeys to India and Pakistan, Peissel claims to have discovered an animal species that may finally illuminate one of the most bizarre passages in Herodotus's Histories. In Book 3, passages 102 to 105, Herodotus reports that a species of fox-sized, furry "ants" lives in one of the far eastern, Indian provinces of the Persian Empire. This region, he reports, is a sandy desert, and the sand there contains a wealth of fine gold dust. These giant ants, according to Herodotus, would often unearth the gold dust when digging their mounds and tunnels, and the people living in this province would then collect the precious dust. Now, Peissel says that in an isolated region of northern Pakistan, on the Deosai Plateau in Gilgit–Baltistan province, there exists a species of marmot, (the Himalayan marmot), (a type of burrowing squirrel) that may have been what Herodotus called giant "ants". Much like the province that Herodotus describes, the ground of the Deosai Plateau is rich in gold dust. According to Peissel, he interviewed the Minaro tribal people who live in the Deosai Plateau, and they have confirmed that they have, for generations, been collecting the gold dust that the marmots bring to the surface when they are digging their underground burrows. The story seems to have been widespread in the ancient world, because later authors like Pliny the Elder mentioned it in his gold mining section of the Naturalis Historia.<br /><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Himalayan_Marmot_at_Tshophu_Lake_Bhutan_091007_a.jpg/150px-Himalayan_Marmot_at_Tshophu_Lake_Bhutan_091007_a.jpg" /><br /><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf8/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" />Himalayan marmot in central Asia.<br /><br />Even more tantalizing, in his book, The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas, Peissel offers the theory that Herodotus may have become confused because the old Persian word for "marmot" was quite similar to that for "mountain ant". Because research suggests that Herodotus probably did not know any Persian (or any other language except his native Greek), he was forced to rely on a multitude of local translators when travelling in the vast multilingual Persian Empire. Therefore, he may have been the unwitting victim of a simple misunderstanding in translation. As Herodotus never claims to have himself seen these "ant/marmot" creatures, it is likely that he was simply reporting what other travellers were telling him, no matter how bizarre or unlikely he personally may have found it to be. In the age when most of the world was still mysterious and unknown and before the modern science of biology, the existence of a giant ant may not have seemed so far-fetched. The suggestion that he completely made up the tale may continue to be thrown into doubt as more research is conducted.[57][58]<br /><br />With that said, Herodotus did follow up in passage 105 of Book 3, with the claim that the "ants/marmots" are said to chase and devour full-grown camels; again, this could simply be dutiful reporting of what was in reality a tall tale or legend told by the local tribes to frighten foreigners from seeking this relatively easy access to gold dust. On the other hand, the details of the "ants" seem somewhat similar to the description of the camel spider (Solifugae), which are said to chase camels, have lots of hair bristles, and could quite easily be mistaken for ants. On account of the fear of encountering one, there have been "many myths and exaggerations about their size".[59] Images of camel spiders[60][61] could give the impression that this could be mistaken for a giant ant, but certainly not the size of a fox.<br /><br /></i></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-74377142260585495472013-02-02T04:53:00.004-08:002013-02-02T04:53:43.017-08:00Hecataeus of Miletus<span style="font-size: large;"><i><br /><br />Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 550 BC – c. 476 BC ) named after the Greek goddess Hecate, was an early Greek historian of a wealthy family. He flourished during the time of thePersian invasion. After having travelled extensively, he settled in his native city, where he occupied a high position, and devoted his time to the composition of geographical and historical works. When Aristagoras held a council of the leading Ionians at Miletus to organize a revolt against the Persian rule, Hecataeus in vain tried to dissuade his countrymen from the undertaking. In 494 BC, when the defeated Ionians were obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the constitution of the Ionic cities. Hecataeus is the first known Greek historian, and was one of the first classical writers to mention the Celtic people. <br /><br />Some have credited Hecataeus with a work entitled "Travels round the Earth" or "World Survey' written in two books. Each book is organized in the manner of a periplus, a point-to-point coastal survey. One, on Europe, is essentially a periplus of the Mediterranean, describing each region in turn, reaching as far north as Scythia. The other book, on Asia, is arranged similarly to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea of which a version of the 1st century AD survives. Hecataeus described the countries and inhabitants of the known world, the account of Egypt being particularly comprehensive; the descriptive matter was accompanied by a map, based upon Anaximander’s map of the earth, which he corrected and enlarged. The work only survives in some 374 fragments, by far the majority being quoted in the geographical lexicon Ethnika compiled by Stephanus of Byzantium.<br /><br />The other known work of Hecataeus was the Genealogiai, a rationally systematized account of the traditions and the myths of the Greeks, a break with the epic myth-making tradition, which survives in a few fragments, just enough to show what we are missing.<br /><br />Hecataeus' work, especially the Genealogiai, shows a marked scepticism of oral history, opening with "Hecataeus of Miletus thus speaks: I write what I deem true; for the stories of the Greeks are manifold and seem to me ridiculous."<br /><br />Herodotus (II, 143) tells a story of a visit by Hecataeus to an Egyptian temple at Thebes. It recounts how the priests showed Herodotus a series of statues in the temple's inner sanctum, each one supposedly set up by the high priest of each generation. Hecataeus, says Herodotus, had seen the same spectacle, after mentioning that he traced his descent, through sixteen generations, from a god. The Egyptians compared his genealogy to their own, as recorded by the statues; since the generations of their high priests had numbered three hundred and forty-five, all mortal men, they refused to believe Hecataeus's claim of descent from a god. Historian James Shotwell has called this encounter with the antiquity of Egypt an influence on Hecataeus's scepticism: he recognized that oral history is untrustworthy.<br /><br />He was probably the first of the logographers to attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical method to distinguish myth from historical fact, though he accepts Homer and other poets as trustworthy authorities. Herodotus, though he once at least contradicts his statements, is indebted to Hecataeus for the concept of a prose history.</i></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-11063642147919854302013-02-02T04:50:00.003-08:002013-02-02T04:50:31.342-08:00Itinerarium<span style="font-size: large;"><i><br />An itinerarium (plural: itineraria) was an Ancient Roman road map in the form of a listing of cities, villages (vici) and other stops, with the intervening distances. One surviving example is the Peutinger Table (Tabula Peutingeriana); another is the Antonine Itinerary.<br /><br />The Romans and ancient travelers in general did not use maps. They may have existed as specialty items in some of the libraries, but they were hard to copy and were not in general use. On the Roman road system, however, the traveller needed some idea of where he was going, how to get there, and how long it would take. The itinerarium filled this need. In origin it was simply a list of cities along a road: "at their most basic, itinerariainvolve the transposition of information given on milestones, which were an integral feature of the major Roman roads, to a written script." It was only a short step from lists to a master list. To sort out the lists, the Romans drew diagrams of parallel lines showing the branches of the roads. Parts of these were copied and sold on the streets. The very best featured symbols for cities, way stations, water courses, and so on. The maps did not represent landforms but they served the purpose of a simple schematic diagram for the user.<br /><br />The Roman government from time to time undertook to produce a master itinerary of all Roman roads. Julius Caesar and Mark Antonycommissioned the first known such effort in 44 BC. Zenodoxus, Theodotus, and Polyclitus, three Greek geographers, were hired to survey the system and compile a master itinerary. This task required over 25 years. The result was a stone engraved master itinerarium set up near thePantheon, from which travelers and itinerary sellers could make copies.<br /><br />Archaeology has turned up some itinerary material in unexpected places. The Cups of Cadiz, four silver cups found by workmen excavating a foundation at Bracciano in 1852, are engraved with the names and distances of stations between Cadiz and Rome. The term itinerary changed meaning over the centuries. In the Itinerarium Burdigalense (Bordeaux Pilgrim, 333 AD), the itinerary is a description of what route to take to the Holy Land. The Itinerarium Alexandri is a list of the conquests of Alexander the Great. Today it means either a travel journal or a list of recommended stops.<br /><br />The term also refers to medieval guide-books written by travellers: most of these are accounts of pilgrimages to the Holy Land. </i></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-39324689768638546222013-02-02T04:34:00.006-08:002013-02-02T04:47:56.856-08:00Phoenicia<span style="font-size: large;">Phoenicia was an ancient Semitic civilization situated on the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent and centered on the coastline of modern Lebanon. All major Phoenician cities were on the coastline of the Mediterranean, some colonies reaching the Western Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC. The Phoenicians used the galley, a man-powered sailing vessel, and are credited with the invention of the bireme. They were famed in Classical Greece and Rome as 'traders in purple', referring to their monopoly on the precious purple dye of the Murex snail, used, among other things, for royal clothing, and for their spread of the alphabet (or abjad), from which all major modern phonetic alphabets are derived.<br /><br />Phoenicians are widely thought to have originated from the earlier Canaanite inhabitants of the region. In the Amarna tablets of the 14th century BC, people from the region called themselves Kenaani or Kinaani (probably same as Canaanites), although these letters predate the invasion of the Sea Peoples by over a century. Much later, in the 6th century BC, Hecataeus of Miletus writes that Phoenicia was formerly called χνα (Latinized: khna), a name Philo of Byblos later adopted into his mythology as his eponym for the Phoenicians: "Khna who was afterwards called Phoinix". Egyptian seafaring expeditions had already been made to Byblos to bring back "cedars of Lebanon" as early as the third millennium BC.<br /><br />"Phoenicia" is really a Classical Greek term used to refer to the region of the major Canaanite port towns, and does not correspond exactly to a cultural identity that would have been recognised by the Phoenicians themselves. It is uncertain to what extent the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single ethnicity and nationality. Their civilization was organized in city-states, similar to ancient Greece. However, in terms of archaeology, language, life style and religion, there is little to set the Phoenicians apart as markedly different from other Semitic cultures of Canaan. As Canaanites, they were unique in their remarkable seafaring achievements.<br /><br />Each of their cities was a city-state which was politically an independent unit. They could come into conflict and one city might be dominated by another city-state, although they would collaborate in leagues or alliances. Though ancient boundaries of such city-centered cultures fluctuated, the city of Tyre seems to have been the southernmost. Sarepta (modern day Sarafand) between Sidon and Tyre is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland.<br /><br />The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make extensive use of the alphabet. The Phoenician phonetic alphabet is generally believed to be the ancestor of almost all modern alphabets, although it did not contain any vowels (these were added later by the Greeks). From a traditional linguistic perspective, they spoke Phoenician, a Canaanite dialect. However, due to the very slight differences in language, and the insufficient records of the time, whether Phoenician formed a separate and united dialect, or was merely a superficially defined part of a broader language continuum, is unclear. Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to North Africa and Europe, where it was adopted by the Greeks, who later passed it on to the Etruscans, who in turn transmitted it to theRomans. In addition to their many inscriptions, the Phoenicians were believed to have left numerous other types of written sources, but most have not survived.<br /><br />Evangelical Preparation by Eusebius of Caesarea quotes extensively from Philo of Byblos and Sanchuniathon.<br /><br /><br /><i><br />The name Phoenicians, like Latin Poenī (adj. poenicus, later pūnicus), comes from Greek (Phoínikes), attested since Homer and influenced by phoînix "Tyrian purple, crimson; murex" (itself from phoinós "blood red"). The word stems from Mycenaean po-ni-ki-jo, po-ni-ki, ultimately borrowed from Ancient Egyptian fnḥw (fenkhu) "Asiatics, Semites". The folk-etymologicalassociation of phoiniki with phoînix mirrors that in Akkadian which tied kinaḫni, kinaḫḫi "Canaan; Phoenicia" to kinaḫḫu "red-dyed wool". Note that there is no connection to the superficially similar phoenix, though this term is also ultimately from Ancient Egyptian, via Greek and Latin (hence the "ph" and "oe"). The land was natively known as knʿn (cf. Eblaite ca-na-na-um, ca-na-na), remembered in the 6th century BC by Hecataeus under the Greek form Chna (χνα), and its people as the knʿny (cf. Punic chanani, Hebrew kanaʿani).<br /> According to the Persians best informed in history, the Phoenicians began the quarrel. These people, who had formerly dwelt on the shores of the Erythraean Sea (the eastern part of the Arabia peninsula), having migrated to the Mediterranean and settled in the parts which they now inhabit, began at once, they say, to adventure on long voyages, freighting their vessels with the wares of Egypt and Assyria...<br />—Herodotus<br /><br />Strabo, the Greek historian, geographer and philosopher mentioned that the Phoenicians came from the eastern part of the Arabia peninsula where they have similar gods, cemeteries and temples. This theory was accepted by the 19th century German classicist Arnold Heeren who said that: “In the Greek geographers, for instance, we read of two islands, named Tyrus or Tylos, and Aradus, which boasted that they were the mother country of the Phoenicians, and exhibited relics of Phoenician temples.” The people of Tyre in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins, and the similarity in the words “Tylos” and “Tyre” has been commented upon. However, there is little evidence of occupation at all in Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place. Later classicist theories were proposed prior to modern archaeological excavations which revealed no disruption of Phoenician societies between 3200 B.C. and 1200 B.C.<br /> Archaeological Museum of Cádiz. The sarcophagus is thought to have been designed and paid for by a Phoenician merchant, and made in Greece with Egyptian influence.<br /><br />Spencer Wells of the Genographic Project has conducted genetic studies that demonstrate that male populations of Lebanon, Syria,Malta, Sicily, Spain, and other areas settled by Phoenicians, as well as the main Jewish populations, including modern Israel, share a common m89 chromosome Y type. m89 first arose around 40,000 years back; a lineage marker of 90 to 95 percent of all non-Africans who migrated out of Africa and settled in the fertile lands of the Middle East and beyond.<br /><br />Pierre Zalloua and Wells (2004), under the auspices of a grant from National Geographic Magazine examined the origins of the Phoenicians. The debate between Wells and Zalloua was whether haplogroup J2 (M172) should be identified as that of the Phoenicians or that of its "parent" haplogroup M89 on the YDNA phylogenetic tree. Initial consensus suggested that J2 be identified with the Canaanite-Phoenician (Northwest Semitic) population, with avenues open for future research. As Wells commented, "The Phoenicians were the Canaanites — and the ancestors of today's Lebanese" It was reported in the PBS description of the National Geographic TV Special on this study entitled "Quest for the Phoenicians" that ancient DNA was included in this study as extracted from the tooth of a 2500 year-old Phoenician mummy.<br /><br />Based on the genetic dating methods utilized by Zalloua the J2 genetic marker dates back to around 12,000 years and stem from the Levant. The National Geographic Genographic Project linked haplogroup J2 to some ancient towns such as Jericho, Tel el-Sultan, ca. 8500 BC and indicated that in modern populations, haplogroup J2 is found in North Africa, Southern Europe, and the Middle East.J2 alone is found at a frequency of (20%) in Southern Italians, and at lesser frequencies in Southern Spain (10%). Both haplogroup J, to whose descendants originally appeared exclusively in the Mediterranean area around 10,000 years ago, and its subgroup J2constitute a combined frequency of about (30%) among Jews.<br /><br />For identifying distinct Phoenicians male genetic traces in nowadays contemporary populations, Zalloua studied sites influenced by the Phoenicians on the basis of well-recorded historical documents, from which Y-chromosomal material was sampled, in conjunction with comparative data from the literature. Of the counterparts used were the coastal Lebanese heartland versus the rest of the Levant(Phoenician periphery), Phoenician Mediterranean colonies versus Phoenician trading centers, and trading centers versus Phoenician non-influenced sites sharing distance proximity. The research drew a conclusion upon the given and was that haplogroup J2, for the most part, and the six Y-STR haplotypes, in particular, exhibited the Phoenician distinguishable signature. Haplotypes PCS1+, a Phoenician colonization signal, through PCS6+ therefore represent lineages that have likely been spread by the Phoenicians.<br /><br />In spite the fact that each STR+ comprises colonies established at distinct geographical sites across the Mediterranean, each remains rooted with high frequencies in the Phoenician heartland. This argues for a joint source of related lineages deep-rooted in Lebanon.<br /> Fernand Braudel remarked in The Perspective of the World that Phoenicia was an early example of a "world-economy" surrounded by empires. The high point of Phoenician culture and sea power is usually placed ca. 1200–800 BC.<br /><br /> Many of the most important Phoenician settlements had been established long before this: Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Simyra, Arwad, and Berytus, all appear in the Amarna tablets. Archeology has identified cultural elements of the Phoenician zenith as early as the third millennium BC.<br /><br />The league of independent city-state ports, with others on the islands and along other coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, was ideally suited for trade between the Levant area, rich in natural resources, and the rest of the ancient world. During the early Iron Age, in around 1200 BC an unknown eventoccurred, historically associated with the appearance of the Sea Peoples from the north. They weakened and destroyed the Egyptians and the Hittitesrespectively. In the resulting power vacuum, a number of Phoenician cities rose as significant maritime powers.<br /><br />The societies rested on three power-bases: the king; the temple and its priests; and councils of elders. Byblos first became the predominant center from where the Phoenicians dominated the Mediterranean and Erythraean (Red) Sea routes. It was here that the first inscription in the Phoenician alphabet was found, on the sarcophagus of Ahiram (ca. 1200 BC). Later, Tyre gained in power. One of its kings, the priest Ithobaal (887–856 BC) ruled Phoenicia as far north as Beirut, and part of Cyprus. Carthage was founded in 814 BC under Pygmalion of Tyre (820–774 BC). The collection of city-states constituting Phoenicia came to be characterized by outsiders and the Phoenicians as Sidonia or Tyria. Phoenicians and Canaanites alike were called Sidonians or Tyrians, as one Phoenician city came to prominence after another.<br /><br />Cyrus the Great conquered Phoenicia in 539 BC. The Persians divided Phoenicia into four vassal kingdoms: Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos. They prospered, furnishing fleets for the Persian kings. Phoenician influence declined after this. It is likely that much of the Phoenician population migrated toCarthage and other colonies following the Persian conquest. In 350 or 345 BC a rebellion in Sidon led by Tennes was crushed by Artaxerxes III. Its destruction was described by Diodorus Siculus.<br /><br />Alexander the Great took Tyre in 332 BC after the Siege of Tyre. Alexander was exceptionally harsh to Tyre, executing 2,000 of the leading citizens, but he maintained the king in power. He gained control of the other cities peacefully: the ruler of Aradus submitted; the king of Sidon was overthrown. The rise of Hellenistic Greece gradually ousted the remnants of Phoenicia's former dominance over the Eastern Mediterranean trade routes. Phoenician culture disappeared entirely in the motherland. Carthage continued to flourish in North Africa. It oversaw the mining of iron and precious metals from Iberia, and used its considerable naval power and mercenary armies to protect commercial interests. Rome finally destroyed it in 146 BC, at the end of the Punic Wars.<br /><br />Following Alexander, the Phoenician homeland was controlled by a succession of Hellenistic rulers: Laomedon (323 BC), Ptolemy I (320), Antigonus II(315), Demetrius (301), and Seleucus (296). Between 286 and 197 BC, Phoenicia (except for Aradus) fell to the Ptolemies of Egypt, who installed the high priests of Astarte as vassal rulers in Sidon (Eshmunazar I, Tabnit, Eshmunazar II).<br /><br />In 197 BC, Phoenicia along with Syria reverted to the Seleucids. The region became increasingly Hellenized, although Tyre became autonomous in 126 BC, followed by Sidon in 111. Syria, including Phoenicia, were seized by king Tigranes the Great of Armenia from 82 until 69 BC, when he was defeated by Lucullus. In 65 BC Pompey finally incorporated the territory as part of the Roman province of Syria.<br /><br />The Phoenicians were among the greatest traders of their time and owed much of their prosperity to trade. At first, they traded mainly with the Greeks, trading wood, slaves, glass and powdered Tyrian purple. Tyrian purple was a violet-purple dye used by the Greekelite to color garments. In fact, the word Phoenician derives from the ancient Greek word phoínios meaning "purple". As trading and colonizing spread over the Mediterranean, Phoenicians and Greeks seemed to have unconsciously split that sea in two: the Phoenicians sailed along and eventually dominating the southern shore, while the Greeks were active along the northern shores. The two cultures clashed rarely, mainly in Sicily, which eventually settled into two spheres of influence, the Phoenician southwest and the Greek northeast.<br /><br /> In the centuries after 1200 BC, the Phoenicians were the major naval and trading power of the region. Phoenician trade was founded on the Tyrian purple dye, a violet-purple dye derived from the shell of the Murex sea-snail, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but exploited to local extinction. James B. Pritchard's excavations at Sarepta in present-day Lebanon revealed crushed Murex shells and pottery containers stained with the dye that was being produced at the site. The Phoenicians established a second production center for the dye in Mogador, in present day Morocco. Brilliant textiles were a part of Phoenician wealth, and Phoenician glass was another export ware. They traded unrefined, prick-eared hunting dogs of Asian or African origin which locally they had developed into many breeds such as the Basenji, Ibizan Hound, Pharaoh Hound, Cirneco dell'Etna, Cretan Hound, Canary Islands Hound, and Portuguese Podengo.[citation needed] To Egypt, where grapevines would not grow, the 8th-century Phoenicians sold wine: the wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by the shipwrecks located in 1997 in the open sea 30 miles west of Ascalon; pottery kilns at Tyre andSarepta produced the big terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, they bought Nubian gold.<br /><br />From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most important being silver from the Iberian Peninsula and tin from Great Britain, the latter of which when smelted with copper from Cyprus created the durable metal alloy bronze. Strabo states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin. It was once thought that this was direct trade but it is now believed to have been indirect. Professor Timothy Champion, a specialist in this period found it likely that the trade of the Phoenicians with Britain was indirect and under the control of the Venetiof Brittany.<br />The Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean, the most strategically important being Carthage in North Africa, directly across the narrow straits. Ancient Gaelic mythologies attribute a Phoenician/Scythian influx to Ireland by a leader called Fenius Farsa. Others also sailed south along the coast of Africa. A Carthaginian expedition led by Hanno the Navigator explored and colonized the Atlantic coast of Africa as far as the Gulf of Guinea; and according to Herodotus, a Phoenician expedition sent down the Red Sea by pharaoh Necho II of Egypt (c. 600 BC) even circumnavigated Africa and returned through the Pillars of Hercules after three years. Using gold obtained by expansion of the African coastal trade following the Hanno expedition, Carthage minted gold staters in 350 BC bearing a pattern, in the reverse exergue of the coins, which some have interpreted as a map of the Mediterranean with America shown to the west.<br /><br />In the Second Millennium BC, the Phoenicians traded with the Somalis. Through the Somali city-states of Mosylon, Opone, Malao, Sarapion, Mundus and Tabae, trade flourished.<br /><br />From the 10th century BC, their expansive culture established cities and colonies throughout the Mediterranean. Canaanite deities like Baal and Astarte were being worshipped from Cyprus to Sardinia, Malta, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, and most notably at Carthage in modern Tunisia.<br /><br /> The Phoenician alphabet was one of the first (consonantal) alphabets with a strict and consistent form. It is assumed that it adopted its simplified linear characters from an as-yet unattested early pictorial Semitic alphabet developed some centuries earlier in the southern Levant. The precursor to the Phoenician alphabet was likely of Egyptian origin as Middle Bronze Age alphabetsfrom the southern Levant resemble Egyptian hieroglyphs, or more specifically an early alphabetic writing system found at Wadi-el-Hol in central Egypt. In addition to being preceded by proto-Canaanite, the Phoenician alphabet was also preceded by an alphabetic script of Mesopotamian origin called Ugaritic. The development of the Phoenician alphabet from the Proto-Canaanite coincided with the rise of the Iron Age in the 11th century BC.<br /><br />This alphabet has been termed an abjad, a script that contains no vowels. The first four letters aleph, beth, jamal, and daleth gave the name to the alphabet.<br /><br /> The oldest known representation of the Phoenician alphabet is inscribed on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram of Byblos, dating to the 11th century BC at the latest. Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian Era. The Phoenicians are credited with spreading the Phoenician alphabet throughout the Mediterranean world. Phoenician traders disseminated this writing system along Aegean trade routes, to Crete and Greece. The Greeks adopted the majority of these letters but changed some of them to vowels which were significant in their language, giving rise to the first true alphabet.<br /><br />The Phoenician language is classified in the Canaanite subgroup of Northwest Semitic. Its later descendant in North Africa is termed Punic. In Phoenician colonies around the western Mediterranean, beginning in the 9th century BC, Phoenician evolved into Punic. Punic Phoenician was still spoken in the 5th century AD: St. Augustine, for example, grew up in North Africa and was familiar with the language.<br /><br />Phoenician art lacks unique characteristics that might distinguish it from its contemporaries. This is due to its being highly influenced by foreign artistic cultures: primarily Egypt, Greece and Assyria. Phoenicians who were taught on the banks of the Nile and the Euphrates gained a wide artistic experience and finally came to create their own art, which was an amalgam of foreign models and perspectives.<br />He entered into other men's labors and made most of his heritage. The Sphinx of Egypt became Asiatic, and its new form was transplanted to Nineveh on the one side and to Greece on the other. The rosettes and other patterns of the Babylonian cylinders were introduced into the handiwork of Phoenicia, and so passed on to the West, while the hero of the ancient Chaldean epic became first the Tyrian Melkarth, and then the Herakles of Hellas.</i></span><div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-90111305714575565632013-02-02T04:30:00.006-08:002013-02-02T04:30:58.885-08:00Periplus<span style="font-size: large;"><br /><br />Periplus is the Latinization of an literally "a sailing-around." Both segments,peri- and -plous, were independently productive: the ancient Greek speaker understood the word in its literal sense; however, it developed a few specialized meanings, one of which became a standard term in the ancient navigation of Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans.<br /><br />A periplus was a manuscript document that listed, in order, the ports and coastal landmarks, with approximate intervening distances, that the captain of a vessel could expect to find along a shore. It served the same purpose as the later Roman itinerarium of road stops; however, the Greek navigators added various notes, which if they were professional geographers (as many were) became part of their own additions to Greek geography. In that sense the periplus was a type of log.<br /><br />The form of the periplus is at least as old as the earliest Greek historian, the Ionian Hecataeus of Miletus. The works of Herodotus and Thucydides contain passages that appear to have been based on peripli.<br /><br />Persian sailors had from very old times their own sailing guide books which were called 'Rahnāmag' in Middle Persian (later 'Rahnāmeh in Persian).<br /><br />These Rahnamehs listed the ports and coastal landmarks and distances along the shores.<br /><br />These lost but much-cited sailing directions go back at least until the twelfth century. In Rahnamehs, the Indian Ocean was described as "a hard sea to get out of" and warned of the "circumambient sea, whence all return was impossible. </span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-55786888649225007352013-01-29T00:56:00.005-08:002013-01-29T00:56:06.775-08:00History of Iran<br /><br />The history of Iran has been intertwined with the history of a larger historical region, comprising the area from the Danube River in the west to the Indus River and Jaxartes in the east and from the Caucasus, Caspian Sea, and Aral Sea in the north to the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman and Egypt in the south.<br /><br />The southwestern part of the Iranian plateau participated in the wider Ancient Near East with Elam, from the Early Bronze Age. The Persian Empire proper begins in the Iron Age, following the influx of Iranian peoples which gave rise to the Median, Achaemenid, the Parthians, the Sassanid dynasties duringclassical antiquity.<br /><br />Once a major empire of superpower proportions, Persia, as it had long been called, has been overrun frequently and has had its territory altered throughout the centuries. Invaded and occupied by Greeks, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, and others—and often caught up in the affairs of larger powers—Persia has always reasserted its national identity and has developed as a distinct political and cultural entity.<br /><br />Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC. The Medes unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC. The Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) was the first of the Iranian empires to rule from the Balkans to North Africa and also Central Asia. They were succeeded by the Seleucid Empire, Parthians and Sassanids which governed Iran for almost 1,000 years.<br /><br />The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656) ended the Sassanid Empire and was a turning point in Iranian history. Islamicization in Iran took place during 8th to 10th century and led to the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia. However, the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new Islamic polity and civilization.<br /><br />After centuries of foreign occupation and short-lived native dynasties, Iran was once again reunified as an independent state in 1501 by the Safavid dynastywhich established Shi'a Islam as the official religion of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in the history of Islam. Iran had been a monarchy ruled by a shah, or emperor, almost without interruption from 1501 until the 1979 Iranian revolution, when Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on 1 April 1979. <br /><br /><br />The earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran were found in the Kashafrud and Ganj Par sites that date back to Lower Paleolithic. Mousterian Stone tools made by Neanderthal man have also been found.[9] There are more cultural remains of Neanderthal man dating back to the Middle Paleolithic period, which mainly have been found in the Zagros region and fewer in central Iran at sites such as Shanidar, Kobeh, Kunji, Bisetun, Tamtama, Warwasi, andYafteh Cave.[10] Evidence for Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic periods are known mainly from the Zagros region in the caves of Kermanshah andKhoramabad and a few number of sites in the Alborz range and Central Iran.<br />[edit]Neolithic to Chalcolithic<br /><br />There are also 9,000 year old human and animal figurines from Teppe Sarab in Kermanshah Province among the many other ancient artifacts. In the 8th millennium BC, agricultural communities such as Chogha Bonut (the earliest village in Susiana) started to form in western Iran, either as a result of indigenous development or of outside influences. Around about the same time the earliest known clay vessels and modeled human and animal terracotta figurines were produced at Ganj Dareh, also in western Iran. The south-western part of Iran was part of the Fertile Crescent where most of humanity's first major crops were grown, in villages such as Susa (where a settlement was first founded possibly as early as 4395 cal BC) and settlements such as Chogha Mish, dating back to 6800 BC; there are 7,000 year old jars of wine excavated in the Zagros Mountains (now on display at The University of Pennsylvania) and ruins of 7,000 year old settlements such as Sialk are further testament to that. The two main Neolithic Iranian settlements were the Zayandeh Rud River Civilization and Ganj Dareh.<br /> <br />Susa is one of the oldest-known settlements of Iran and the world. Based on C14 dating, the time of foundation of the city is as early as 4395 BC, a time that goes beyond the age of civilization in Mesopotamia. Later, Susa became the capital of Elam, which its emergence as a state is around 4000 BC. There are also dozens of pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau pointing to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the 4th millennium BC,[3] One of the earliest civilizations in Iranian plateau was the Jiroft Civilization in southeastern Iran, in the province of Kerman. It is one of the most artifact-rich archaeological sites in the Middle East. Archaeological excavations in Jiroft led to the discovery of several objects belonging to the 4th millennium BC. There is a large quantity of objects decorated with highly distinctive engravings of animals, mythological figures, and architectural motifs. The objects and their iconography are unlike anything ever seen before by archeologists. Many are made from chlorite, a gray-green soft stone; others are in copper, bronze, terracotta, and even lapis lazuli. Recent excavations at the sites have produced the world's earliest inscription which pre-dates Mesopotamian inscriptions. <br /><br />There are records of numerous other ancient civilizations on the Iranian plateau before the arrival of Iranian tribes from the Pontic-Caspian steppe during theEarly Iron Age. The Early Bronze Age saw the rise of urbanization into organized city states and the invention of writing (the Uruk period) in the Near East. While Bronze Age Elam made use of writing from an early time, the Proto-Elamite script remains undeciphered, and records from Sumer pertaining to Elam are scarce.<br />Further information: Tappeh Sialk, Jiroft civilization, Elam, and Mannaeans<br /> <br />Records become more tangible with the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and its records of incursions from the Iranian plateau. As early as the 20th century BC, tribes came to the Iranian Plateau from the Pontic-Caspian steppe . Some say the arrival of Iranians on the Iranian plateau forced the Elamites to relinquish one area of their empire after another and to take refuge in Susiana, Khuzistan and nearby area, which only then became coterminous with Elam. Others scholars say that the Iranian tribes simply intermixed with the Elamite peoples living in the plateau. By the mid-1st millennium BC, Medes, Persians, and Parthians populated the Iranian plateau.<br /><br />In 646 BC, The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal sacked Susa, which ended Elamite supremacy in the region.[23] For over 150 years Assyrian kings of nearby Northern Mesopotamia were seeking to conquer Median tribes of Western Iran.[24] Under pressure from the Assyrian empire, the small kingdoms of the western Iranian plateau coalesced into increasingly larger and more centralized states.[23] In the second half of the 7th century BC, the Median tribes gained their independence and were united by Deioces. In 612 BC Cyaxares the Great, Deioces' grandson, and the Babylonian king Nabopolassar invaded Assyria and laid siege to and eventually destroyed Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, which led to the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.[25] The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, and established the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes andPersians leading to the Achaemenian Empire (c.550–330 BC).<br /><br />Cyrus the Great overthrew, in turn, the Medes, Lydians, and Babylonians, creating an empire far larger than Assyria. He was better able, through more benign policies, to reconcile his subjects to Persian rule; and the longevity of his empire was one result. The Persian king, like the Assyrian, was also "King of Kings," xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām (shāhanshāh in modern Persian) – "great king," Megas Basileus, as known by the Greeks.<br /><br />Cambyses II conquered Ancient Egypt, overthrowing the Dynasty XXVI. Since he became ill and died before, or while, leaving Egypt, stories developed, as related by Herodotus, that he was struck down for impiety against the Egyptian pantheon. Be that as it may, it led to a succession crisis. The winner, Darius I of Persia, based his claim on membership in a collateral line of theAchaemenid Dynasty.<br /><br />Darius' first capital was at Susa, and he started the building programme at Persepolis. He rebuilt a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, a forerunner of the modern Suez Canal. He improved the extensive road system, and it is during his reign that mention is first made of the Royal Road (shown on map), a great highway stretching all the way from Susa to Sardis with posting stations at regular intervals. Major reforms took place under Darius. Coinage, in the form of the daric (gold coin) and the shekel (silver coin) was introduced (coinage had already been invented over a century before in Lydia c. 660 BC), and administrative efficiency was increased. The Old Persian language appears in royal inscriptions, written in a specially adapted version ofcuneiform. Under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest empire in human history up until that point, ruling and administrating over most of the then known world. Their greatest achievement was the empire itself. The Persian Empire represented the world's first superpower. that was based on a model of tolerance and respect for other cultures and religions. <br /><br />In 499 BC, Athens lent support to a revolt in Miletus which resulted in the sacking of Sardis. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against Greece known as the Greco-Persian Wars which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC. During the Greco-Persian wars Persia made some major advantages and razed Athens in 480 BC, but after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw while losing control of Macedonia, Thrace and Ionia. Fighting ended with the peace of Callias in 449 BC. In 404 BC following the death of Darius II Egypt rebelled under Amyrtaeus. Later Egyptian Pharaohs successfully resisted Persian attempts to reconquer Egypt until 343 BC when Egypt was reconquered by Artaxerxes III.<br /><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/PersepolisPanorama2007.jpg/800px-PersepolisPanorama2007.jpg" /><br /><br /><i><br />In 334 BC-331 BC Alexander the Great, also known in the Zoroastrian Arda Wiraz Nâmag as "the accursed Alexander", defeated Darius III in the battles of Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, swiftly conquering the Persian Empire by 331 BC. Alexander's empire broke up shortly after his death, and Alexander's general, Seleucus I Nicator, tried to take control of Persia, Mesopotamia, and later Syria and Asia Minor. His ruling family is known as the Seleucid Dynasty. However he was killed in 281 BC by Ptolemy Keraunos. Greek language, philosophy, and art came with the colonists. During the Seleucid Dynasty throughout Alexander's former empire, Greek became the common tongue of diplomacy and literature. Overland trade brought about some fascinating cultural exchanges. Buddhism came in from India, while Zoroastrianism travelled west to influenceJudaism. Incredible statues of the Buddha in classical Greek styles have been found in Persia and Afghanistan, illustrating the mix of cultures that occurred around this time (See Greco-Buddhism).<br /><br />The Parthian Empire was the realm of the Arsacid dynasty (اشکانیان), who reunited and governed the Iranian plateau after conquering Parthia and defeating the Greek Seleucid Empire (سلوکیان) in the later 3rd century BC, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 150 BC and AD 224.<br /><br />Parthia was the Eastern arch-enemy of the Roman Empire; and it limited Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). The Parthian armies included two types of cavalry: the heavily armed and armoured cataphracts and lightly armed but highly mobile mounted archers. For the Romans, who relied on heavy infantry, the Parthians were too hard to defeat, as both types of cavalry were much faster and more mobile than foot soldiers. On the other hand, the Parthians found it difficult to occupy conquered areas as they were unskilled in siege warfare. Because of these weaknesses, neither the Romans nor the Parthians were able completely to annex each other's territory.<br /><br />The Parthian empire subsisted for five centuries, longer than most Eastern Empires. The end of this empire came at last in AD 224, when the empire's organization had loosened and the last king was defeated by one of the empire's vassal peoples, the Persians under the Sassanian dynasty.<br /><br /><br />The first Shah of the Sassanid Empire, Ardashir I, started reforming the country both economically and militarily. The empire's territory encompassed all of today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, eastern parts of Turkey, and parts of Syria, Pakistan, Caucasia, Central Asia, India and Arabia.<br /><br />The Persians defeated the Romans in the Battle of Edessa in 260 and took the Roman emperor, Valerian, prisoner for the remainder of his life.<br /><br />During Khosrau II's rule in 590–628, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine and Lebanon were also annexed to the Empire. The Sassanians called their empire Erânshahr (or Iranshahr, "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. ofIranians).<br /><br />A chapter of Iran's history followed after roughly six hundred years of conflict with the Roman Empire. During this time, the Sassanian and Romano-Byzantine armies clashed for influence in Mesopotamia, Armenia and the Levant. Under Justinian I, the war came to an uneasy peace with payment of tribute to the Sassanians. However the Sassanians used the deposition of the Byzantine Emperor Maurice as acasus belli to attack the Empire. After many gains, the Sassanians were defeated at Issus, Constantinople and finally Nineveh, resulting in peace. With the conclusion of the Roman-Persian wars, the war-exhausted Persians lost the Battle of al-Qâdisiyah (632) in Hilla, (present day Iraq) to the invading forces of Islam.<br /><br />The Sassanian era, encompassing the length of the Late Antiquity period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. In many ways the Sassanian period witnessed the highest achievement of Persian civilization, and constitutes the last great Iranian Empire before the adoption of Islam. Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably during Sassanian times, their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe, Africa, China and India and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art. This influence carried forward to the Islamic world. The dynasty's unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance. Much of what later became known as Islamic culture, architecture, writing and other contributions to civilization, were taken from the Sassanian Persians into the broader Muslim world.[36]<br /><br /> Expansion under the Prophet Muhammad, 622–632<br /> Expansion during the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632–661<br /> Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750<br /><br />Muslims invaded Iran in the time of Umar (637) and conquered it after several great battles. The last Sassanid ruler, Yazdegerd III, fled from one district to another until a local miller killed him for his purse at Merv in 651. By 674, Muslims had conquered Greater Khorasan (which included modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern Afghanistan and parts of Transoxania). The Islamic conquest of Persia ended the Sassanid Empire and led to the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia. Over time, the majority of Iranians converted to Islam. However, most of the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were absorbed by the new Islamic polity.<br /><br />As Bernard Lewis has commented:<br /><br /><br />"These events have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision."<br /><br /><br />After the fall of Sasanian dynasty in 651, the Umayyad Arabs adopted many Persian customs especially the administrative and the court mannerisms. Arab provincial governors were undoubtedly either Persianized Arameans or ethnic Persians; certainly Persian remained the language of official business of the caliphate until the adoption of Arabic toward the end of the 7th century, when in 692 minting began at the caliphal capital, Damascus. The new Islamic coins evolved from imitations of Sassanian coins (as well as Byzantine), and the Pahlavi script on the coinage was replaced with Arabic alphabet.<br /><br />During the reign of the Ummayad dynasty, the Arab conquerors imposed Arabic as the primary language of the subject peoples throughout their empire. Hajjāj ibn Yusuf, who was not happy with the prevalence of the Persian language in the divan, ordered the official language of the conquered lands to be replaced by Arabic, sometimes by force.<br /><br />"When Qutaibah bin Muslim under the command of Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef was sent to Khwarazmia with a military expedition and conquered it for the second time, he swiftly killed whomever wrote the Khwarazmian native language that knew of the Khwarazmian heritage, history, and culture. He then killed all their Zoroastrian priests and burned and wasted their books, until gradually the illiterate only remained, who knew nothing of writing, and hence their history was mostly forgotten."<br /><br />There are a number of historians who see the rule of the Umayyads as setting up the "dhimmah" to increase taxes from the dhimmis to benefit the Arab Muslim community financially and by discouraging conversion. Governors lodged complaints with the caliph when he enacted laws that made conversion easier, depriving the provinces of revenues.<br /><br />In the 7th century, when many non-Arabs such as Persians entered Islam, they were recognized as Mawali and treated as second class citizens by the ruling Arab elite until the end of theUmayyad dynasty. During this era, Islam was initially associated with the ethnic identity of the Arab and required formal association with an Arab tribe and the adoption of the client status ofmawali. The half-hearted policies of the late Umayyads to tolerate non-Arab Muslims and Shi'as had failed to quell unrest among these minorities. If this was the case, this practice went against the teachings of Islam because the Prophet Madinah had a close companion named Salman the Persian. With the death of the Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik in 743, the Islamic world was launched into civil war. Abu Muslim was sent to Khorasan by the Abbasids initially as a propagandist and then to revolt on their behalf. He took Merv defeating the Umayyadgovernor there Nasr ibn Sayyar. He became the de facto Abbasid governor of Khurasan. In 750, Abu Muslim became leader of the Abbasid army and defeated the Umayyads at the Battle of the Zab. Abu Muslim stormed Damascus, the capital of the Umayyad caliphate, later that year.<br /><br /> The Abbasid army consisted primarily of Khorasanians and was led by an Iranian general, Abu Muslim Khorasani. It contained both Iranian and Arab elements, and the Abbasids enjoyed both Iranian and Arab support. The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750.<br /><br />One of the first changes the Abbasids made after taking power from the Umayyads was to move the empire's capital from Damascus, in theLevant, to Iraq. The latter region was influenced by Persian history and culture, and moving the capital was part of the Persian mawali demand for Arab influence in the empire. The city of Baghdad was constructed on the Tigris River, in 762, to serve as the new Abbasid capital. The Abbasids established the position of vizier like Barmakids in their administration, which was the equivalent of a "vice-caliph", or second-in-command. Eventually, this change meant that many caliphs under the Abbasids ended up in a much more ceremonial role than ever before, with the vizier in real power. A new Persian bureaucracy began to replace the old Arab aristocracy, and the entire administration reflected these changes, demonstrating that the new dynasty was different in many ways to the Umayyads.<br /><br />By the 9th century, Abbasid control began to wane as regional leaders sprang up in the far corners of the empire to challenge the central authority of the Abbasid caliphate. The Abbasid caliphs began enlisting Turkic-speaking warriors who had been moving out of Central Asia intoTransoxiana as slave warriors as early as the 9th century. Shortly thereafter the real power of the Abbasid caliphs began to wane; eventually they became religious figureheads while the warrior slaves ruled. As the power of the Abbasid caliphs diminished, a series of dynasties rose in various parts of Iran, some with considerable influence and power. Among the most important of these overlapping dynasties were the Tahirids inKhorasan (820–72); the Saffarids in Sistan (867–1003, their rule lasted as maliks of Sistan until 1537); and the Samanids (875–1005), originally atBokhara. The Samanids eventually ruled an area from central Iran to Pakistan. By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control to the growing Persian faction known as the Buwayhid dynasty (934–1055). Since much of the Abbasid administration had been Persian anyway, the Buwayhid were quietly able to assume real power in Baghdad. The Buwayhid were defeated in the mid-11th century by the Seljuq Turks, who continued to exert influence over the Abbasids, while publicly pledging allegiance to them. The balance of power in Baghdad remained as such – with the Abbasids in power in name only – until the Mongol invasion of 1258 sacked the city and definitively ended the Abbasid dynasty.<br /><br />During the Abbassid period an enfranchisement was experienced by the mawali and a shift was made in political conception from that of a primarily Arab empire to one of a Muslim empire and c. 930 a requirement was enacted that required all bureaucrats of the empire be Muslim.<br /><br /><br />Islamization was a long process by which Islam was gradually adopted by the majority population of Iran. Richard Bulliet's "conversion curve" indicates that only about 10% of Iran converted to Islam during the relatively Arab-centric Umayyad period. Beginning in the Abassid period, with its mix of Persian as well as Arab rulers, the Muslim percentage of the population rose. As Persian Muslims consolidated their rule of the country, the Muslim population rose from approx. 40% in the mid-9th century to close to 100% by the end of 11th century. Seyyed Hossein Nasr suggests that the rapid increase in conversion was aided by the Persian nationality of the rulers.<br /><br />Although Persians adopted the religion of their conquerors, over the centuries they worked to protect and revive their distinctive language and culture, a process known as Persianization. Arabs and Turks participated in this attempt.<br /><br />In the 9th and 10th centuries, non-Arab subjects of the Ummah created a movement called Shu'ubiyyah in response to the privileged status of Arabs. Most of those behind the movement were Persian, but references to Egyptians, Berbers and Aramaeans are attested. Citing as its basis Islamic notions of equality of races and nations, the movement was primarily concerned with preserving Persian culture and protecting Persian identity, though within a Muslim context. The most notable effect of the movement was the survival of the Persian language to the present day.<br /><br />The Samanid dynasty led the revival of Persian culture and the first important Persian poet after the arrival of Islam, Rudaki, was born during this era and was praised by Samanid kings. The Samanids also revived many ancient Persian festivals. Their successor, the Ghaznawids, who were of non-Iranian Turkic origin, also became instrumental in the revival of Persian.<br /><br />The culmination of the Persianization movement was the Shahname, the national epic of Iran, written almost entirely in Persian. This voluminous work, reflects Iran's ancient history, its unique cultural values, its pre-Islamic Zoroastrian religion, and its sense of nationhood.<br /><br />According to Bernard Lewis:<br /><br /><br />"Iran was indeed Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna..."<br /><br />The Islamization of Iran was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming ofPersian literature, philosophy, medicine and art became major elements of the newly forming Muslim civilization. Inheriting a heritage of thousands of years of civilization, and being at the "crossroads of the major cultural highways", contributed to Persia emerging as what culminated into the "Islamic Golden Age". During this period, hundreds of scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during the Renaissance.<br /><br />The most important scholars of almost all of the Islamic sects and schools of thought were Persian or lived in Iran, including the most notable and reliable Hadith collectors of Shia and Sunni like Shaikh Saduq, Shaikh Kulainy, Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim and Hakim al-Nishaburi, the greatesttheologians of Shia and Sunni like Shaykh Tusi, Imam Ghazali, Imam Fakhr al-Razi and Al-Zamakhshari, the greatest physicians, astronomers,logicians, mathematicians, metaphysicians, philosophers and scientists like Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the greatest Shaykh of Sufism like Rumi, Abdul-Qadir Gilani.<br /><br /><br />In 962 a Turkic governor of the Samanids, Alptigin, conquered Ghazna (in present-day Afghanistan) and established a dynasty, the Ghaznavids, that lasted to 1186. The Ghaznavid empire grew by taking all of the Samanid territories south of the Amu Darya in the last decade of the 10th century, and eventually occupied much of present-day Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwest India. The Ghaznavids are generally credited with launching Islam into Hindu-dominated India. The invasion of India was undertaken in 1000 by the Ghaznavid ruler, Mahmud, and continued for several years. They were unable to hold power for long, however, particularly after the death of Mahmud in 1030. By 1040 the Seljuqs had taken over the Ghaznavid lands in Iran.<br /><br />The Seljuqs, who like the Ghaznavids were Persianate in nature and of Turkic origin, slowly conquered Iran over the course of the 11th century. The dynasty had its origins in the Turcoman tribal confederations of Central Asia and marked the beginning of Turkicpower in the Middle East. They established a Sunni Muslim rule over parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to 14th centuries. They set up an empire known as Great Seljuq Empire that stretched from Anatolia in the west to western Afghanistan in the east and the western borders of (modern-day) China in the northeast; and was the target of the First Crusade. Today they are regarded as the cultural ancestors of the Western Turks, the present-day inhabitants of Azerbaijan,Turkey, and Turkmenistan, and they are remembered as great patrons of Persian culture, art, literature, and language. The dynastic founder, Tughril Beg, turned his army against the Ghaznavids in Khorasan. He moved south and then west, conquering but not wasting the cities in his path. In 1055 the caliph in Baghdad gave Tughril Beg robes, gifts, and the title King of the East. Under Tughril Beg's successor, Malik Shah (1072–1092), Iran enjoyed a cultural and scientific renaissance, largely attributed to his brilliant Iranian vizier, Nizam al Mulk. These leaders established the observatory where Omar Khayyám did much of his experimentation for a new calendar, and they built religious schools in all the major towns. They brought Abu Hamid Ghazali, one of the greatest Islamic theologians, and other eminent scholars to the Seljuq capital at Baghdad and encouraged and supported their work.<br /><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf7/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" />Seljuq empire at the time of its greatest extent, at the death of Malik Shah I[citation needed]<br /><br />When Malik Shah I died in 1092, the empire split as his brother and four sons quarrelled over the apportioning of the empire among themselves. In Anatolia, Malik Shah I was succeeded by Kilij Arslan I who founded the Sultanate of Rûm and in Syria by his brotherTutush I. In Persia he was succeeded by his son Mahmud I whose reign was contested by his other three brothers Barkiyaruq in Iraq,Muhammad I in Baghdad and Ahmad Sanjar in Khorasan. As Seljuq power in Iran weakened, other dynasties began to step up in its place, including a resurgent Abbasid caliphate and the Khwarezmshahs. The Khwarezmid Empire was a Sunni Muslim Persianate dynasty, of East Turkic origin, that ruled in Central Asia. Originally vassals of the Seljuqs, they took advantage of the decline of the Seljuqs to expand into Iran. In 1194 the Khwarezmshah Ala ad-Din Tekish defeated the Seljuq sultan Toghrul III in battle and the Seljuq empire in Iran collapsed. Of the former Seljuq Empire, only the Sultanate of Rüm in Anatolia remained.<br /><br />A serious internal threat to the Seljuqs during their reign came from the Ismailis, a secret sect with headquarters at Alamut betweenRasht and Tehran. They controlled the immediate area for more than 150 years and sporadically sent out adherents to strengthen their rule by murdering important officials. Several of the various theories on the etymology of the word assassin derive from these killers<br />[edit]Mongols, Timurids and local governments<br />Main articles: Mongol invasion of Central Asia, Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia, Mongol Empire, Ilkhanate, and Timurid dynasty<br /><br /><br />The Khwarezmid Empire only lasted for a few decades, until the arrival of the Mongols. Genghis Khan had unified the Mongols, and under him the Mongol Empire quickly expanded in several directions, until by 1218 it bordered Khwarezm. At that time, the Khwarezmid Empire was ruled by Ala ad-Din Muhammad (1200–1220). Muhammad, like Genghis, was intent on expanding his lands and had gained the submission of most of Iran. He declared himself shah and demanded formal recognition from the Abbasid caliph an-Nasir. When the caliph rejected his claim, Ala ad-Din Muhammad proclaimed one of his nobles caliph and unnsuccessfully tried to depose an-Naisr.<br /><br />The Mongol invasion of Iran began in 1219, after two diplomatic missions to Khwarezm sent by Genghis Khan had been massacred. During 1220–21 Bukhara, Samarkand, Herat, Tus, and Nishapur were razed, and the whole populations were slaughtered. The Khwarezm-Shah fled, to die on an island off the Caspian coast. During the invasion of Transoxania in 1219, along with the main Mongol force, Genghis Khan used a Chinese specialist catapult unit in battle, they were used again in 1220 in Transoxania. The Chinese may have used the catapults to hurl gunpowder bombs, since they already had them by this time While Genghis Khan was conquering Transoxania and Persia, several Chinese who were familiar with gunpowder were serving in Genghis's army. "Whole regiments" entirely made out of Chinese were used by the Mongols to command bomb hurling trbuchets during the invasion of Iran. Historians have suggested that the Mongol invasion had brought Chinese gunpowder weapons to Central Asia. One of these was the huochong, a Chinese mortar Books written around the area afterward depicted gunpowder weapons which resembled that of China.<br /><br />Before his death in 1227, Genghis had reached western Azarbaijan, pillaging and burning cities along the way.<br /><br />The Mongol invasion was disastrous to the Iranians. Although the Mongol invaders were eventually converted to Islam and accepted the culture of Iran, the Mongol destruction of the Islamic heartland marked a major change of direction for the region. Much of the six centuries of Islamic scholarship, culture, and infrastructure was destroyed as the invaders burned libraries, and replaced mosques with Buddhist temples. The Mongols killed many civilians. Just in Merv and Urgench(Gorganj) about 2.5 million civilians were slaughtered. Destruction ofqanat irrigation systems destroyed the pattern of relatively continuous settlement, producing numerous isolated oasis cities in a land where they had previously been rare. A large number of people, particularly males, were killed; between 1220 and 1258, the total population of Iran may have dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine.<br /><br />After Genghis' death, Iran was ruled by several Mongol commanders. Genghis' grandson, Hulagu Khan, was tasked with the westward expansion of Mongol dominion. However, by time he ascended to power, the Mongol Empire had already dissolved, dividing into different factions. Arriving with an army, he established himself in the region and founded the Ilkhanate, a breakaway state of the Mongol Empire, which would rule Iran for the next eighty years and become Persianate in the process. He seized Baghdad in 1258 and put the last Abbasid caliph to death. The westward advance of his forces was stopped by the Mamelukes, however, at the Battle of Ain Jalut inPalestine in 1260. Hulagu's campaigns against the Muslims also enraged Berke, khan of the Golden Horde and a convert to Islam. Hulagu and Berke fought against each other, demonstrating the weakening unity of the Mongol empire.<br /><br />The rule of Hulagu's great-grandson, Ghazan Khan (1295–1304) saw the establishment of Islam as the state religion of the Ilkhanate. Ghazan and his famous Iranian vizier, Rashid al-Din, brought Iran a partial and brief economic revival. The Mongols lowered taxes for artisans, encouraged agriculture, rebuilt and extended irrigation works, and improved the safety of the trade routes. As a result, commerce increased dramatically. Items from India, China, and Iran passed easily across the Asian steppes, and these contacts culturally enriched Iran. For example, Iranians developed a new style of painting based on a unique fusion of solid, two-dimensional Mesopotamian painting with the feathery, light brush strokes and other motifs characteristic of China. After Ghazan's nephew Abu Saiddied in 1335, however, the Ilkhanate lapsed into civil war and was divided between several petty dynasties – most prominently theJalayirids, Muzaffarids, Sarbadars and Kartids.<br /><br />The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 30% of the country's population.<br /><br />Iran remained divided until the arrival of Timur, who is variously described as of Mongol or Turkic origin. Like his predecessors, the Timurid dynasty was also part of the Persianate world. After establishing a power base in Transoxiana, he invaded Iran in 1381 and eventually conquered most of it. Timur's campaigns were known for their brutality; many people were slaughtered and several cities were destroyed. His regime was characterized by its inclusion of Iranians in administrative roles and its promotion of architecture and poetry. His successors, the Timurids, maintained a hold on most of Iran until 1452, when they lost the bulk of it to Black Sheep Turkmen. The Black Sheep Turkmen were conquered by the White Sheep Turkmen under Uzun Hasan in 1468; Uzun Hasan and his successors were the masters of Iran until the rise of the Safavids.<br />[edit]Sunnism and Shiism in pre-Safavid Iran<br />Main article: Islam in Iran<br /><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf7/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" />Haruniyah structure in Tus, Iran, named afterHarun al-Rashid, the mausoleum of Ghazali is expected to be situated on the entrance of this monument.<br /><br />Sunnism was dominant form of Islam in most part of Iran from the beginning until rise of Safavids empire. Sunni Islam was more than 90% of population of Persia before the Safavids. According toMortaza Motahhari the majority of Iranian scholars and masses remained Sunni until the time of the Safavids. The domination of Sunnis did not mean Shia were rootless in Iran. The writers of The Four Books of Shia were Iranian, as well as many other great Shia scholars.<br /><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf7/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" />Imam Reza shrine, the greatest religious site in Iran, which was built in 9th century and the pilgrimage site for all Muslims since then.<br /><br />The domination of the Sunni creed during the first nine Islamic centuries characterized the religious history of Iran during this period. There were however some exceptions to this general domination which emerged in the form of the Zaydīs of Tabaristan, the Buwayhid, the rule ofSultan Muhammad Khudabandah (r. Shawwal 703-Shawwal 716/1304-1316) and the Sarbedaran. Apart from this domination there existed, firstly, throughout these nine centuries, Shia inclinations among many Sunnis of this land and, secondly, original Imami Shiism as well as Zaydī Shiismhad prevalence in some parts of Iran. During this period, Shia in Iran were nourished from Kufah,Baghdad and later from Najaf and Hillah. Shiism were dominant sect in Tabaristan, Qom,Kashan, Avaj and Sabzevar. In many other areas merged population of Shia and Sunni lived together.<br /><br />During the 10th and 11th centuries, Fatimids sent Ismailis Da'i (missioners) to Iran as well as other Muslim lands. When Ismailis divided into two sects, Nizaris established their base in Iran. Hassan-i Sabbah conquered fortresses and captured Alamut in 1090 AD. Nizaris used this fortress until a Mongol raid in 1256.<br /><br />After the Mongol raid and fall of the Abbasids, Sunni hierarchies faltered. Not only did they lose the caliphate but also the status of officialmadhab. Their loss was the gain of Shia, whose center wasn't in Iran at that time. Several local Shia dynasties like Sarbadars were established during this time.<br /><br />The main change occurred in the beginning of the 16th century, when Ismail I founded the Safavid dynasty and initiated a religious policy to recognize Shi'a Islam as the official religion of theSafavid Empire, and the fact that modern Iran remains an officially Shi'ite state is a direct result of Ismail's actions.<br /><br /><br />Persia underwent a revival under the Safavid dynasty (1502–1736), the most prominent figure of which was Shah Abbas I. Some historians credit the Safavid dynasty for founding the modern nation-state of Iran. Iran's contemporary Shia character, and significant segments of Iran's current borders take their origin from this era (e.g. Treaty of Zuhab).<br /><br /><br />The Safavids were an Iranian Shia dynasty of mixed Azeri and Kurdish origins, which ruled Persia from 1501/1502 to 1722. Safavids established the greatest Iranian empire since the Islamic conquest of Persia, and established the Ithnāʻashari school of Shi'a Islam as the official religion of their empire.<br /><br />The Safavid ruling dynasty was founded by Ismāil, from now known as Shāh Ismāil I. Practically worshipped by his Qizilbāsh followers, Ismāil invaded Shirvan and avenged the death of his father. Afterwards, he went on a conquest campaign, capturing Tabriz in July 1501, where he enthroned himself the Shāh of Azerbaijan ] and minted coins in his name, proclaiming Shi'ism the official religion of his domain. Although initially the masters of Azerbaijan only, the Safavids had, in fact, won the struggle for power in Persia which had been going on for nearly a century between various dynasties and political forces. A year after his victory in Tabriz, Ismāil proclaimed most of Persia as his domain. He soon conquered and unified Iran under his rule. Soon after, the new Safavid Empire conquered most of the modern day Afghanistan (while eastern part of she including Ghazni and Kabul was part of Mughals) and Iraq. But, present Eastern Anatolia and east section of Southeastern Anatolia of Turkey and Iraq was lost to Ottomans within four decades.<br /><br />The greatest of the Safavid monarchs, Shah Abbas I the Great (1587–1629) came to power in 1587 aged 16. Abbas I first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing Herat and Mashhad in 1598. Then he turned against the Ottomans, recapturing Baghdad, eastern Iraq and the Caucasian provinces by 1622. He also used his new force to dislodge the Portuguese from Bahrain (1602) and the English navy from Hormuz (1622), in the Persian Gulf (a vital link in Portuguese trade with India). He expanded commercial links with the English East India Company and the Dutch East India Company. Thus Abbas I was able to break the dependence on the Qizilbash for military might and therefore was able to centralize control. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major power in the world and started the promotion of tourism in Iran. Under their rule Persian Architecture flowered again and saw many new monuments.<br /><br />Except for Shah Abbas II, the Safavid rulers after Abbas I were ineffectual. The end of his reign, 1666, marked the beginning of the end of the Safavid dynasty. Despite falling revenues and military threats, later shahs had lavish lifestyles. Shah Soltan Hosain (1694–1722) in particular was known for his love of wine and disinterest in governance. The country was repeatedly raided on its frontiers. Finally, Ghilzai Pashtun chieftain named Mir Wais Khan began a rebellion in Kandahar and defeated the Safavid army. Later, in 1722 an Afghan army led by Mir Wais' son Mahmud marched across eastern Iran, besieged, and sacked Isfahan. Mahmud proclaimed himself 'Shah' of Persia. Meanwhile, Persia's imperial rivals, the Ottomans and the Russians, took advantage of the chaos in the country to seize territory for themselves.<br /> <br />Iran's territorial integrity was restored by a Turkic Afshar warlord from Khorasan, Nader Shah. He defeated the Afghans and Ottomans, reinstalled the Safavids on the throne and negotiated Russian withdrawal. By 1736, Nader had become so powerful he was able to depose the Safavids and have himself crowned shah. Nader was one of the last great conquerors of Asia and his military reforms enabled his army to take Kandahar and invade Mughal India, sacking Delhi in 1739. But the increasing cruelty and oppressiveness of his later years provoked multiple revolts and, ultimately, Nader's assassination in 1747<br /><br />Nader's death was followed by a period of anarchy in Iran as rival army commanders fought for power. Nader's own family, the Afsharids, were soon reduced to holding on to a small domain in Khorasan. Oman and Uzbek khanates of Bukhara and Khiva regained independence. Ahmad Shah Durranifounded an independent state which became modern Afghanistan. From his capital Shiraz, Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty ruled "an island of relative calm and peace in an otherwise bloody and destructive period."[82] His death in 1779 led to yet another civil war in which the Qajar dynasty eventually triumphed and became shahs of Iran.<br /> <br />By the 17th century, European countries, including Great Britain, Imperial Russia, and France, had already started establishing colonial footholds in the region. Iran as a result lost sovereignty over many of its provinces to these countries via the Treaty of Turkmenchay, the Treaty of Gulistan, and others.<br /><br />The Great Persian Famine of 1870–1871 is believed to have caused the death of 2 million persons.<br />A new era in the History of Persia dawned with the Constitutional Revolution of Iran against the Shah in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Shah managed to remain in power, granting a limited constitution in 1906 (making the country a constitutional monarchy). The first Majlis (parliament) was convened on October 7, 1906.<br /><br />The discovery of oil in 1908 by the British in Khuzestan spawned intense renewed interest in Persia by the British Empire (see William Knox D'Arcy andAnglo-Iranian Oil Company, now BP). Control of Persia remained contested between the United Kingdom and Russia, in what became known as The Great Game, and codified in the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, which divided Persia into spheres of influence, regardless of her national sovereignty.<br /><br />During World War I, the country was occupied by British, Ottoman and Russian forces but was essentially neutral (see Persian Campaign). In 1919, after the Russian revolution and their withdrawal, Britain attempted to establish a protectorate in Iran, which was unsuccessful.<br /><br />Finally, the Constitutionalist movement of Gilan and the central power vacuum caused by the instability of the Qajar government resulted in the rise ofReza Shah Pahlavi and the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1925.<br /><br />In 1921, a military coup established Reza Khan, a Persian officer of the Persian Cossack Brigade, as the dominant figure for the next 20 years. Seyyed Zia'eddin Tabatabai was also a leader and important figure in the perpetration of the coup. The Iranian coup of 1921 was not actually directed at the Qajar monarchy; according to Encyclopædia Iranica, it was targeted at officials who were in power and actually had a role in controlling the government; the cabinet and others who had a role in governing Persia. In 1925, after being prime minister for a couple of years, Reza Shah became the king of Iran and established the Pahlavi dynasty.<br /><br /><br />Reza Shah ruled for almost 16 years until September 16, 1941, when he was forced to abdicate by the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran. He established anauthoritarian government that valued nationalism, militarism, secularism and anti-communism combined with strict censorship and state propaganda. Reza Shah introduced many socio-economic reforms, reorganizing the army, government administration, and finances. To his supporters his reign brought "law and order, discipline, central authority, and modern amenities – schools, trains, buses, radios, cinemas, and telephones". However, his attempts of modernisation have been criticised for being "too fast" and "superficial", and his reign a time of "oppression, corruption, taxation, lack of authenticity" with "security typical of police states."<br /><br />Many of the new laws and regulations created resentment among devout Muslims and the clergy. For example mosques were required to use chairs; most men were required to wear western clothing, including a hat with a brim; women were encouraged to discard the hijab; men and women were allowed to freely congregate, violating Islamic mixing of the sexes. Tensions boiled over in 1935, when bazaaris and villagers rose up in rebellion at the Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad, chanting slogans such as 'T he Shah is a new Yezid.' Dozens were killed and hundreds were injured when troops finally quelled the unrest.<br /><br />Reza Shah's son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, came to power during World War II, when British and Indian forces from Iraq and Soviet forces from the north occupied Iran in August 1941. Iran was a vital oil-supply source and link in the Allied supply line for lend-lease supplies. Reza Shah was forced to abdicate in favour of his pro-British son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, who ruled until 1979.<br /><br />At the Tehran Conference of 1943, the Tehran Declaration guaranteed the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran. However, when the war actually ended, Soviet troops stationed in northwestern Iran not only refused to withdraw but backed revolts that established short-lived, pro-Soviet separatist national states in the northern regions of Azerbaijan and Iranian Kurdistan, the Azerbaijan People's Government and the Republic of Kurdistan respectively, in late 1945.<br /><br />Soviet troops did not withdraw from Iran proper, until May 1946 after receiving a promise of oil concessions. The Soviet republics in the north were soon overthrown and the oil concessions were revoked.<br /><br />Initially there were hopes that post-occupation Iran could become a constitutional monarchy. The new, young Shah Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi initially took a very hands-off role in government, and allowed parliament to hold a lot of power. Some elections were held in the first shaky years, although they remained mired in corruption. Parliament became chronically unstable, and from the 1947 to 1951 period Iran saw the rise and fall of six different prime ministers.<br /><br />In 1951 Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq received the vote required from the parliament to nationalize the British-owned oil industry, in a situation known as the Abadan Crisis. Despite British pressure, including an economic blockade, the nationalization continued. Mossadegh was briefly removed from power in 1952 but was quickly re-appointed by the shah, due to a popular uprising in support of the premier and he, in turn, forced the Shah into a brief exile in August 1953 after a failed military coup by Imperial Guard Colonel Nematollah Nassiri. Shortly thereafter on August 19 a successful coup was headed by retired army general Fazlollah Zahedi, organized by the American (CIA) with the active support of the British (MI6) (known as Operation Ajax). The coup — with a black propaganda campaign designed to turn the population against Mossadegh — forced Mossadegh from office, and was remembered with anger by Iranians. Mossadegh was arrested and tried for treason. Found guilty, his sentence reduced to house arrest on his family estate while his foreign minister, Hossein Fatemi, was executed. Zahedi succeeded him as prime minister, and suppressed opposition to the Shah, specifically the National Front and Communist Tudeh Party.<br /><br />Iran was ruled as an autocracy under the shah with American support from that time until the revolution. The Iranian government entered into agreement with an international consortium of foreign companies which ran the Iranian oil facilities for the next 25 years splitting profits fifty-fifty with Iran but not allowing Iran to audit their accounts or have members on their board of directors. In 1957 martial law was ended after 16 years and Iran became closer to the West, joining the Baghdad Pact and receiving military and economic aid from the US. In 1961, Iran initiated a series of economic, social, agrarian and administrative reforms to modernize the country that became known as the Shah's White Revolution.<br /><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf7/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" />Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.<br /><br />The core of this program was land reform. Modernization and economic growth proceeded at an unprecedented rate, fueled by Iran's vast petroleum reserves, the third-largest in the world. However the reforms, including the White Revolution, did not greatly improve economic conditions and the liberal pro-Western policies alienated certain Islamic religious and political groups. In early June 1963 several days of massive rioting in support of AyatollahRuhollah Khomeini following the cleric's arrest for a speech attacking the shah.<br /><br />Two year later, premier Hassan Ali Mansur was assassinated and the internal security service, SAVAK, became more violently active. In the 1970s leftistguerilla groups such as Mujaheddin-e-Khalq (MEK), emerged and attacked regime and foreign targets.<br /><br />Nearly a hundred Iran political prisoners were killed by the SAVAK during the decade before the revolution and many more were arrested and tortured. The Islamic clergy, headed by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (who had been exiled in 1964), were becoming increasingly vociferous.<br /><br />Iran greatly increased its defense budget and by the early 1970s was the region's strongest military power. Bilateral relations with its neighbor Iraq were not good, mainly due to a dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterway. In November 1971, Iranian forces seized control of three islands at the mouth of the Persian Gulf; in response, Iraq expelled thousands of Iranian nationals. Following a number of clashes in April 1969, Iran abrogated the 1937 accord and demanded a renegotiation.<br /><br />In mid-1973, the Shah returned the oil industry to national control. Following the Arab-Israeli War of October 1973, Iran did not join the Arab oil embargo against the West and Israel. Instead, it used the situation to raise oil prices, using the money gained for modernization and to increase defense spending.<br /><br />A border dispute between Iraq and Iran was resolved with the signing of the Algiers Accord on March 6, 1975.<br /><br />Donald Rumsfeld meets Saddam Hussein on 19–20 December 1983. Rumsfeld visited again on 24 March 1984, the day the UN reported that Iraq had used mustard gas and tabun nerve agent against Iranian troops. The NY Times reported from Baghdad on 29 March 1984, that "American diplomats pronounce themselves satisfied with Iraq and the U.S., and suggest that normal diplomatic ties have been established in all but name."<br /><br /><br />The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution, was the revolution that transformed Iran from an absolute monarchy underShah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, one of the leaders of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic. Its time span can be said to have begun in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations, and concluded with the approval of the new theocratic Constitution — whereby Ayatollah Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country — in December 1979. In between, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi left the country for exile in January 1979 after strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, and on February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to a greeting of several million Iranians. The final collapse of the Pahlavi dynasty occurred shortly after on February 11 when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979 when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so.<br /><br />The ideology of revolutionary government was populist, nationalist and most of all Shi'a Islamic. Its unique constitution is based on the concept ofvelayat-e faqih the idea advanced by Khomeini that Muslims —- in fact everyone —- requires "guardianship", in the form of rule or supervision by the leading Islamic jurist or jurists. Khomeini served as this ruling jurist, or supreme leader, until his death in 1989.<br /><br />Iran's rapidly modernising, capitalist economy was replaced by populist and Islamic economic and cultural policies. Much industry wasnationalized, laws and schools Islamicized, and Western influences banned.<br /><br />The Islamic revolution also created great impact around the world. In the non-Muslim world it has changed the image of Islam, generating much interest in the politics and spirituality of Islam, along with "fear and distrust towards Islam" and particularly the Islamic Republic and its founder.<br /><br />Khomeini served as leader of the revolution or as Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 to his death on June 3, 1989. This era was dominated by the consolidation of the revolution into a theocratic republic under Khomeini, and by the costly and bloody war with Iraq.<br /><br />The consolidation lasted until 1982–3, as Iran coped with the damage to its economy, military, and apparatus of government, and protests and uprisings by secularists, leftists, and more traditional Muslims — formerly ally revolutionaries but now rivals — were effectively suppressed. Following the events of the revolution, Marxist guerrillas and federalist parties revolted in some regions comprising Khuzistan, Kurdistan andGonbad-e Qabus, which resulted in severe fighting between rebels and revolutionary forces. These revolts began in April 1979 and lasted between several months to over a year, depending on the region. The Kurdish uprising, led by the KDPI, was the most violent, lasting until 1983 and resulting in 10,000 casualties.<br /><br />In the summer of 1979 a new constitution giving Khomeini a powerful post as guardian jurist Supreme Leader and a clerical Council of Guardians power over legislation and elections, was drawn up by an Assembly of Experts for Constitution. The new constitution was approved by referendum in December 1979.<br /><br />An early event in the history of the Islamic republic that had a long term impact was the Iran hostage crisis. Following the admitting of the former Shah of Iran into the United States for cancer treatment, on November 4, 1979, Iranian students seized US embassy personnel, labeling the embassy a "den of spies." Fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days until January 1981. The takeover was enormously popular in Iran, where thousands gathered in support of the hostage takers, and it is thought to have strengthened the prestige of the Ayatollah Khomeini and consolidated the hold of anti-Americanism. It was at this time that Khomeini began referring to America as the "Great Satan." In America, where it was considered a violation of the long-standing principle of international law that diplomats may be expelled but not held captive, it created a powerful anti-Iranian backlash. Relations between the two countries have remained deeply antagonistic and American international sanctions have hurt Iran's economy.<br /><br />During this political and social crisis, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein attempted to take advantage of the disorder of the Revolution, the weakness of the Iranian military and the revolution's antagonism with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. Seeking to expand Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was Khuzestan which not only boasted a substantial Arab population, but rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the United Arab Emirates, the islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On September 22, 1980, the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran–Iraq War. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.<br /><br />Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, Iranian forces had pushed the Iraqi army back into Iraq by 1982. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.<br /><br />Tens of thousands of Iranian civilians and military personnel were killed when Iraq used chemical weapons in its warfare. Iraq was financially backed by Egypt, the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact states, the United States (beginning in 1983), France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Brazil, and the People's Republic of China (which also sold weapons to Iran).<br /><br />There were more than 100,000 Iranian victims of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian human wave attacks; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.<br /><br />Starting on 19 July 1988 and lasting about five months the government systematically executed thousands of political prisoners across Iran. This is commonly referred to as the 1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners or the 1988 Iranian Massacre. The main target was the membership of the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (PMOI), although a lesser number of political prisoners from other leftist groups were also included such as the Tudeh Party of Iran (Communist Party). Estimates of the number executed vary from 1,400 to 30,000.<br /> On his deathbed in 1989, Khomeini appointed a 25-man Constitutional Reform Council which named Ali Khamenei as the next Supreme Leader, and made a number of changes to Iran's constitution. A smooth transition followed Khomeini's death on June 3, 1989. While Khamenei lacked Khomeini's "charisma and clerical standing", he developed a network of supporters within Iran's armed forces and its economically powerful religious foundations. Under his reign Iran's regime is said – by at least one observer – to resemble more "a clerical oligarchy ... than an autocracy."<br />Succeeding Khamenei as president was pragmatic conservative Ali-Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, who served two four-year terms and focused his efforts on rebuilding Iran's economy and war-damaged infrastructure though low oil prices hampered this endeavour. His regime also successfully promoted birth control, cut military spending and normalized relations with neighbors such as Saudi Arabia. During the Persian Gulf War in 1991 the country remained neutral, restricting its action to the condemnation of the U.S. and allowing fleeing Iraqi aircraft and refugees into the country.<br /><br />Rafsanjani was succeeded in 1997 by the reformist Mohammad Khatami. His presidency was soon marked by tensions between the reform-minded government and an increasingly conservative and vocal clergy. This rift reached a climax in July 1999 when massive anti-government protests erupted in the streets of Tehran. The disturbances lasted over a week before police and pro-government vigilantes dispersed the crowds.<br /><br />Khatami was re-elected in June 2001 but his efforts were repeatedly blocked by the conservatives in the parliament. Conservative elements within Iran's government moved to undermine the reformist movement, banning liberal newspapers and disqualifying candidates for parliamentary elections. This clampdown on dissent, combined with the failure of Khatami to reform the government, led to growing political apathy among Iran's youth.<br /><br />In June 2003, anti-government protests by several thousand students took place in Tehran. Several human rights protests also occurred in 2006.<br /><br />In 2005 Iranian presidential election, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, mayor of Tehran, became the sixth president of Iran, after winning 62 percent of the vote in the run-off poll, against former president Ali-Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani. During the authorization ceremony he kissed Khamenei's hand in demonstration of his loyalty to him.<br /><br />During this time, the American invasion of Iraq, overthrow of Sadam Hussein's regime and empowerment of its Shi'amajority, all strengthened Iran's position in the region particularly in the mainly Shia south of Iraq, where a top Shia leader in the week of September 3, 2006 renewed demands for an autonomous Shia region. At least one commentator (Former U.S. Defense Secretary William S. Cohen) has stated that as of 2009 Iran's growing power has eclipsed anti-Zionism as the major foreign policy issue in the middle east.<br /><br />During 2005 and 2006, there were claims that the United States and Israel were planning to attack Iran, for many different claimed reasons, including Iran's civilian nuclear energy program which the United States and some other states fear could lead to a nuclear weapons program, crude oil and other strategic reasons (including the Iranian Oil Bourse), electoral reasons in the USA and in Iran. P.R. China and Russia oppose military action of any sort and oppose economic sanctions. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwa forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons. The fatwa was cited in an official statement by the Iranian government at an August 2005 meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna.<br />In 2009 Ahmadinejad's reelection was hotly disputed and marred by large protests that formed the "greatest domestic challenge" to the leadership of the Islamic Republic "in 30 years". Reformist opponent Mir-Hossein Mousavi and his supporters alleged voting irregularities and by 1 July 2009, 1000 people had been arrested and 20 killed in street demonstrations. Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and other Islamic officials blamed foreign powers for fomenting the protest. </i>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-66987229210758737992013-01-27T23:49:00.001-08:002013-01-27T23:49:14.262-08:00Alexandria<span style="font-size: large;"><i><br /><br />Alexandria in Egyptian Arabic) is the second largest city in Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about 32 km (20 mi) along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country. It is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. Alexandria is Egypt's largest seaport, serving approximately 80% of Egypt's imports and exports. It is an important industrial center because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez. Alexandria is also an important tourist resort.<br /><br />Alexandria was founded around a small pharaonic town c. 331 BC by Alexander the Great. It remained Egypt's capital for nearly a thousand years, until the Muslim conquest of Egypt in AD 641, when a new capital was founded at Fustat (later absorbed into Cairo). Ancient Alexandria was best known for the Lighthouse of Alexandria (Pharos), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World; its library (the largest in the ancient world; now replaced by a modern one); and the Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa, one of the Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages. Ongoing maritime archaeology in the harbor of Alexandria, which began in 1994, is revealing details of Alexandria both before the arrival of Alexander, when a city named Rhacotis existed there, and during the Ptolemaic dynasty.<br /><br />From the late 19th century, Alexandria became a major center of the international shipping industry and one of the most important trading centers in the world, both because it profited from the easy overland connection between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, and the lucrative trade in Egyptian cotton.<br /><br /><br />Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in April 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια (Alexandria). Alexander's chief architectfor the project was Dinocrates. Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis as a Hellenistic center in Egypt, and to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile Valley. An Egyptian city, Rhakotis, already existed on the shore, and later gave its name to Alexandria in the Egyptian language (Egyptian *Raˁ-Ḳāṭit, written rˁ-ḳṭy.t, 'That which is built up'). It continued to exist as the Egyptian quarter of the city. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to his city. After Alexander's departure, his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the expansion. Following a struggle with the other successors of Alexander, his general Ptolemy succeeded in bringing Alexander's body to Alexandria, though it was eventually lost after being separated from its burial site there.<br /><br />Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandria's continuous development, the Heptastadion and the mainland quarters seem to have been primarily Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the center of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In a century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and, for some centuries more, was second only to Rome. It became Egypt's main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds.<br /><br />Alexandria was not only a center of Hellenism, but was also home to the largest urban Jewish community in the world. The Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced there. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Hellenistic center of learning (Library of Alexandria), but were careful to maintain the distinction of its population's three largest ethnicities: Greek, Jewish, and Egyptian.[3] From this division arose much of the later turbulence, which began to manifest itself under Ptolemy Philopater who reigned from 221–204 BC. The reign of Ptolemy VIII Physcon from 144–116 BC was marked by purges and civil warfare.[citation needed]<br /><br />The city passed formally under Roman jurisdiction in 80 BC, according to the will of Ptolemy Alexander, but only after it had been under Roman influence for more than a hundred years. It was besieged by the Ptolemies in 47 BC during Julius Caesar intervention in the civil war between king Ptolemy XIII and his advisers, and the fabled queen Cleopatra VII. It was finally captured by Octavian, future emperor Augustus on 1 August 30 BC, with the name of the month later being changed to August to commemorate his victory.<br /><br />In AD 115, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Kitos War, which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. In 215, the emperor Caracalla visited the city and, because of some insulting satires that the inhabitants had directed at him, abruptly commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. On 21 July 365, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami(365 Crete earthquake), an event annually commemorated years later as a "day of horror." In the late 4th century, persecution of pagans by newly Christian Romans had reached new levels of intensity. In 391, the Patriarch Theophilus destroyed all pagan temples in Alexandria under orders from Emperor Theodosius I. The Brucheum and Jewish quarters were desolate in the 5th century. On the mainland, life seemed to have centered in the vicinity of the Serapeum and Caesareum, both of which became Christian churches. The Pharos and Heptastadium quarters, however, remained populous and were left intact. <br /><br /><br />In 619, Alexandria fell to the Sassanid Persians. Although the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recovered it in 629, in 641 the Arabs under the general Amr ibn al-As captured it during the Muslim conquest of Egypt, after a siege that lasted 14 months.<br /><br />After the Battle of Ridaniya in 1517, the city was conquered by the Ottoman Turks and remained under Ottoman rule until 1798.<br /><br />Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt in 1798. French troops stormed the town on 2 July 1798, and it remained in their hands until the arrival of a British expedition in 1801. The British won a considerable victory over the French at the Battle of Alexandria on 21 March 1801, following which they besieged the town, which fell to them on 2 September 1801. Mohammed Ali, the Ottoman Governor of Egypt, began rebuilding and redevelopment around 1810, and by 1850, Alexandria had returned to something akin to its former glory. In July 1882, the city came under bombardment from British naval forces and was occupied. In July 1954, the city was a target of an Israeli bombing campaign that later became known as the Lavon Affair. On 26 October 1954, Alexandria's Mansheyya Square was the site of a failed assassination attempt on Gamal Abdel Nasser.<br /><br />The most important battles and sieges of Alexandria include:<br />Siege of Alexandria (47 BC), Caesar's civil war<br />Battle of Alexandria (30 BC), Final war of the Roman Republic<br />Siege of Alexandria (619), Byzantine-Persian Wars<br />Siege of Alexandria (641), Rashidun conquest of Byzantine Egypt<br />Battle of Alexandria, French Revolutionary Wars<br />Siege of Alexandria (1801), French Revolutionary Wars<br />Alexandria expedition of 1807, French Revolutionary Wars<br />Battle of Alexandria (2012), Anti-Mursi uprising, headquarters held for much less than 1 day, independence from Egypt proclaimed<br /><br /><br />Alexandria is located in the country of,Egypt on the coast of the southern Mediterranean<br /><br />Alexandria has an hot arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BWh), but the prevailing north wind, blowing across the Mediterranean, gives the city a different climate from the desert hinterland. The city's climate shows Mediterranean (Csa) characteristics, namely mild, variably rainy winters and hot summers that, at times, can be very humid; January and February are the coolest months, with daily maximum temperatures typically ranging from 12 to 18 °C (54 to 64 °F) and minimum temperatures that could reach 5 °C (41 °F). Alexandria experiences violent storms, rain and sometimes hail during the cooler months. July and August are the hottest and driest months of the year, with an average daily maximum temperature of 30 °C (86 °F).<br /> Climate data for Alexandria<br />MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear<br />Record high °C (°F) 29<br />(84) 33<br />(91) 40<br />(104) 41<br />(106) 45<br />(113) 44<br />(111) 43<br />(109) 39<br />(102) 41<br />(106) 38<br />(100) 36<br />(97) 29<br />(84) 45<br />(113)<br />Average high °C (°F) 18.4<br />(65.1) 19.3<br />(66.7) 20.9<br />(69.6) 24.0<br />(75.2) 26.5<br />(79.7) 28.6<br />(83.5) 29.7<br />(85.5) 30.4<br />(86.7) 29.6<br />(85.3) 27.6<br />(81.7) 24.1<br />(75.4) 20.1<br />(68.2) 24.9<br />(76.8)<br />Daily mean °C (°F) 13.4<br />(56.1) 13.9<br />(57.0) 15.7<br />(60.3) 18.5<br />(65.3) 21.2<br />(70.2) 24.3<br />(75.7) 25.9<br />(78.6) 26.3<br />(79.3) 25.1<br />(77.2) 22.0<br />(71.6) 18.7<br />(65.7) 14.9<br />(58.8) 20.0<br />(68.0)<br />Average low °C (°F) 9.1<br />(48.4) 9.3<br />(48.7) 10.8<br />(51.4) 13.4<br />(56.1) 16.6<br />(61.9) 20.3<br />(68.5) 22.8<br />(73.0) 23.1<br />(73.6) 21.3<br />(70.3) 17.8<br />(64.0) 14.3<br />(57.7) 10.6<br />(51.1) 15.8<br />(60.4)<br />Record low °C (°F) 2<br />(36) 4<br />(39) 7<br />(45) 12<br />(54) 17<br />(63) 18<br />(64) 14<br />(57) 11<br />(52) 1<br />(34) 1<br />(34) <br />Rainfall mm (inches) 52.8<br />(2.079) 29.2<br />(1.15) 14.3<br />(0.563) 3.6<br />(0.142) 1.3<br />(0.051) 0.01<br />(0.0004) 0.03<br />(0.0012) 0.1<br />(0.004) 0.8<br />(0.031) 9.4<br />(0.37) 31.7<br />(1.248) 52.7<br />(2.075) 195.94<br />(7.7142)<br />Avg. rainy days (≥ 0.01 mm) 11.0 8.9 6.0 1.9 1.0 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.2 2.9 5.4 9.5 46.92<br />Mean monthly sunshine hours 192.2 217.5 248.0 273.0 316.2 354.0 362.7 344.1 297.0 282.1 225.0 195.3 3,307.1<br />Source: World Meteorological Organization (UN), Bing Weather for record temperatures, Hong Kong Observatory[13] for data of sunshine hours and daily mean temperatures<br /><br />[edit]Layout of the ancient city<br /><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf7/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" />Macedonian Army<br /><br />Greek Alexandria was divided into three regions:Brucheumthe Royal or Greek quarter, forming the most magnificent portion of the city. In Roman times Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official quarter, making four regions in all. The city was laid out as a grid of parallel streets, each of which had an attendant subterranean canal;The Jewish quarterforming the northeast portion of the city;RhakotisThe old city of Rhakotis that had been absorbed into Alexandria. It was occupied chiefly by Egyptians. (from Coptic Rakotə "Alexandria").<br /><br />Two main streets, lined with colonnades and said to have been each about 60 metres (200 ft) wide, intersected in the center of the city, close to the point where the Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (his Mausoleum) rose. This point is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; and the line of the great East–West "Canopic" street, only slightly diverged from that of the modern Boulevard de Rosette (now Sharia Fouad). Traces of its pavement and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate, but remnants of streets and canals were exposed in 1899 by German excavators outside the east fortifications, which lie well within the area of the ancient city.<br /><br />Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a mole nearly a mile long (1260 m) and called the Heptastadion ("seven stadia"—astadium was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately 180 m). The end of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where the "Moon Gate" rose. All that now lies between that point and the modern "Ras al-Tiin" quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras al-Tiin quarter represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On the east of the mole was the Great Harbor, now an open bay; on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbor.<br /><br />In Strabo's time, (latter half of 1st century BC) the principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen from a ship entering the Great Harbor.<br />The Royal Palaces, filling the northeast angle of the town and occupying the promontory of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbor on the east. Lochias (the modern Pharillon) has almost entirely disappeared into the sea, together with the palaces, the "Private Port," and the island of Antirrhodus. There has been a land subsidence here, as throughout the northeast coast of Africa.<br />The Great Theater, on the modern Hospital Hill near the Ramleh station. This was used by Caesar as a fortress, where he withstood a siege from the city mob after the battle of Pharsalus<br />The Poseidon, or Temple of the Sea God, close to the theater<br />The Timonium built by Marc Antony<br />The Emporium (Exchange)<br />The Apostases (Magazines)<br />The Navalia (Docks), lying west of the Timonium, along the seafront as far as the mole<br />Behind the Emporium rose the Great Caesareum, by which stood the two great obelisks, which become known as “Cleopatra's Needles,” and were transported to New York City and London. This temple became, in time, the Patriarchal Church, though some ancient remains of the temple have been discovered. The actual Caesareum, the parts not eroded by the waves, lies under the houses lining the new seawall.<br />The Gymnasium and the Palaestra are both inland, near the Boulevard de Rosette in the eastern half of the town; sites unknown.<br />The Temple of Saturn; site unknown.<br />The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of the two main streets.<br />The Musaeum with its famous Library and theater in the same region; site unknown.<br />The Serapeum, the most famous of all Alexandrian temples. Strabo tells us that this stood in the west of the city; and recent discoveries go far as to place it near “Pompey's Pillar,” which was an independent monument erected to commemorate Diocletian's siege of the city.<br /><br />The names of a few other public buildings on the mainland are known, but there is little information as to their actual position. None, however, are as famous as the building that stood on the eastern point of Pharos island. There, The Great Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, reputed to be 138 meters (450 ft) high, was situated. The first Ptolemy began the project, and the second Ptolemy (Ptolemy II Philadelphus) completed it, at a total cost of 800 talents. It took 12 years to complete and served as a prototype for all later lighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top and the tower was built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. The Pharos lighthouse was destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century, making it the second longest surviving ancient wonder, after the Great Pyramid of Giza. A temple of Hephaestus also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole.<br /><br />In the 1st century, the population of Alexandria contained over 180,000 adult male citizens (from a papyrus dated 32 AD), in addition to a large number of freedmen, women, children and slaves. Estimates of the total population range from 500,000 to over 1,000,000, making it one of the largest cities ever built before the Industrial Revolution and the largest pre-industrial city that was not an imperial capital.<br /><br /><br /><br />Due to the constant presence of war in Alexandria in ancient times, very little of the ancient city has survived into the present day. Much of the royal and civic quarters sank beneath the harbor due to earthquake subsidence in AD 365, and the rest has been built over in modern times.<br /><br />"Pompey's Pillar", a Roman triumphal column, is one of the best-known ancient monuments still standing in Alexandria today. It is located on Alexandria's ancient acropolis—a modest hill located adjacent to the city's Arab cemetery—and was originally part of a temple colonnade. Including its pedestal, it is 30 m (99 ft) high; the shaft is of polished red granite, 2.7 meters in diameter at the base, tapering to 2.4 meters at the top. The shaft is 88 feet (27 m) high made out of a single piece of granite. This would be 132 cubic meters or approximately 396 tons. Pompey's Pillar may have been erected using the same methods that were used to erect the ancient obelisks. The Romans had cranes but they were not strong enough to lift something this heavy. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehrner conducted several obelisk erecting experiments including a successful attempt to erect a 25-ton obelisk in 1999. This followed two experiments to erect smaller obelisks and two failed attempts to erect a 25-ton obelisk. The structure was plundered and demolished in the 4th century when a bishop decreed that Paganism must be eradicated. "Pompey's Pillar" is a misnomer, as it has nothing to do with Pompey, having been erected in 293 for Diocletian, possibly in memory of the rebellion of Domitius Domitianus. Beneath the acropolis itself are the subterranean remains of the Serapeum, where the mysteries of the god Serapis were enacted, and whose carved wall niches are believed to have provided overflow storage space for the ancient Library. In more recent years, a lot of ancient artifacts have been discovered from the surrounding sea, mostly pieces of old pottery.<br /><br />Alexandria's catacombs, known as Kom al-Shoqafa, are a short distance southwest of the pillar, consist of a multi-level labyrinth, reached via a large spiral staircase, and featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues, and other syncretic Romano-Egyptian religious symbols, burial niches, and sarcophagi, as well as a large Roman-style banquet room, where memorial meals were conducted by relatives of the deceased. The catacombs were long forgotten by the citizens until they were discovered by accident in the 1800s.<br /><br />The most extensive ancient excavation currently being conducted in Alexandria is known as Kom al-Dikka. It has revealed the ancient city's well-preserved theater, and the remains of its Roman-era baths.<br /><br />Persistent efforts have been made to explore the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have been given by the local Archaeological Society, and by many individuals, notably Greeks proud of a city which is one of the glories of their national history.Excavations were performed in the city by Greeks seeking Alexander the Great tomb without success. The past and present directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time to carry out systematic excavations whenever opportunity is offered; D. G. Hogarth made tentative researches on behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund and the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies in 1895; and a German expedition worked for two years (1898–1899). But two difficulties face the would-be excavator in Alexandria: lack of space for excavation and the underwater location of some areas of interest.<br /><br /><br />Since the great and growing modern city stands immediately over the ancient one, it is almost impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except at enormous cost. Cleopatra VII's royal quarters were inundated by earthquakes and tidal waves, leading to gradual subsidence in the 4th century AD. This underwater section, containing many of the most interesting sections of the Hellenistic city, including the palace quarter, was explored in 1992 and is still being extensively investigated by the French underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio and his team. It raised a noted head of Caesarion. These are being opened up to tourists, to some controversy. The spaces that are most open are the low grounds to northeast and southwest, where it is practically impossible to get below the Roman strata.<br /><br />The most important results were those achieved by Dr. G. Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighborhood of “Pompey's Pillar”, where there is a good deal of open ground. Here, substructures of a large building or group of buildings have been exposed, which are perhaps part of the Serapeum. Nearby, immensecatacombs and columbaria have been opened which may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now artificially lit and open to visitors.<br /><br />The objects found in these researches are in the museum, the most notable being a great basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum. Other catacombs and tombs have been opened in Kom al-Shoqqafa (Roman) and Ras al-Tiin (painted).<br /><br />The German excavation team found remains of a Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east of the city, but little else. Hogarth explored part of an immense brick structure under the mound of Kom al-Dikka, which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea, or a Roman fortress.<br /><br />The making of the new foreshore led to the dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some objects of antiquity being discovered. The wealth underground is doubtlessly immense; but despite all efforts, there is not much for antiquarians to see in Alexandria outside the museum and the neighborhood of “Pompey's Pillar”.<br /><br /><br />The temple was built in the Ptolemy era and finished the construction of Alexandria. The temple is located in Abusir, the western suburb of Alexandria in Burj Al Arab city. The temple was dedicated to Osiris. Only the outer wall and the pylons remain from the temple. There is evidence to prove that sacred animals were worshipped there. Archeologists found an animal necropolis near the temple. Remains of a Christian church show that the temple was used as a church in later centuries. Also found in the same area are remains of public baths built by the emperor Justinian, a seawall, quays and a bridge. Near the beach side of the area, we can see the remains of a tower built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The tower was an exact scale replica of the destroyed Alexandrine Pharos Lighthouse.<br /><br />Modern Alexandria is divided into six districts:<br />al-Montaza District: population 1,190,287<br />Shark (Eastern Alexandria) District: population 985,786<br />Wassat (Central Alexandria) District: population 520,450<br />al-Amriya District: population 845,845<br />Agamy (Western Alexandria) District: population 386,374<br />al-Gomrok District: population 145,558<br /><br />There are also two cities under the jurisdiction of the Alexandria governorate forming metropolitan Alexandria:<br />Borg Al-Arab city: population 186,900<br />New Borg Al-Arab city: population 7,600<br /><br /><br />Maamoura, Montaza, Mandara (Bahary - Qibly), Asafra (Bahary - Qibly), Miami, Sidi Bishr (Bahary - Qibly), Saray, Victoria, Seyouf, Laurent, Tharwat, San Stefano, Gianaclis, Schutz, Zezenia, Glim, Bacchus, Saba Pasha, Fleming, Dahria, Bolkly, Stanley, Rushdy, Mustafa Kamel, Kafr Abdu, Smouha, Nozha, Sidi Gaber, Cleopatra, Sporting, Ibrahimiyya, Camp Cezar, Al Shatby, Hadara (Bahary - Qibly - New), Azarita (Originally Lazarette), Muharram Bek, El Raml Downtown, Koum Al Dikka, Eastern Harbor, Anfoushi, Manshiyya, Attarin, Karmous, (aka Karmouz), Ras El Tin, Labban, Mina El Basal, Western Harbor, Qabbary, Wardian, El Max, Dekheila, Agami Al Bitaash (Originally "Beau Tache"), Agami Al Hanuviel (Originally "Hameaux Ville"), Amreya, King Mariout, Burg al-Arab<br /><br />(Ahmed) Orabi Square (Mansheya Square), in Downtown<br />Saad Zaghlul Square, in Downtown<br />Tahrir Square (formerly Mohammed Ali Square, originally Place des Consuls), in Downtown<br />Ahmed Zewail Square, near Wabour al-Mayah<br />[edit]Palaces<br />Montaza Palace, in Montaza<br />Ras al-Tiin Palace, in Ras al-Tiin<br />Presidential Palace, in Maamoura<br />Palais d’Antoniadis, in Smoha<br /><img height="549" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Alexandria_-_Montaza_Palace_-_front_view.JPG/120px-Alexandria_-_Montaza_Palace_-_front_view.JPG" width="640" /><br /><br /><br />Montaza Palace <br /><img height="480" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Montaza_Palace.jpg/120px-Montaza_Palace.jpg" width="640" /><br /><br /><br />Montaza palace <br /><img height="469" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-12200%2C_Alexandria%2C_Ras-El-Tine-Palast.jpg/120px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-12200%2C_Alexandria%2C_Ras-El-Tine-Palast.jpg" width="640" /><br /><br /><br />Tiin Palace <br /><img height="480" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis04.JPG/120px-GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis04.JPG" width="640" /><br /><br /><br />Antoniadis Palace<br /><br />Montaza Royal Gardens<br />Antoniades Park<br />Shallalat Gardens<br />Alexandria Zoo<br />Green Plaza<br />Fantazy Land<br />Maamoura Beach, Alexandria<br />Marina Resort<br /><img height="240" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Marina_lake_haddara.jpg/120px-Marina_lake_haddara.jpg" width="320" /><br /><br /><br />Marina <br /><img height="240" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Shalalat_gardens.JPG/120px-Shalalat_gardens.JPG" width="320" /><br /><br /><br />Shallalat Gardens <br /><img height="400" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis07.JPG/90px-GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis07.JPG" width="300" /><br /><br /><br />Ferdinand Magellan <br /><img height="400" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis08.JPG/90px-GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis08.JPG" width="300" /><br /><br /><br />Nelson <br /><img height="400" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis09.JPG/90px-GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis09.JPG" width="300" /><br /><br /><br />Vasco da Gama <br /><img height="400" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis10.JPG/90px-GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis10.JPG" width="300" /><br /><br /><br />Christopher Columbus <br /><img height="300" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis02.JPG/120px-GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis02.JPG" width="400" /><br /><br /><br />English Garden<br /><img height="300" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis05.JPG/120px-GD-EG-Alex-Antoniadis05.JPG" width="400" /><br /><br /><br />French Garden<br /><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Alexandria_panorama.jpg/800px-Alexandria_panorama.jpg" /><br /><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf7/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" /><br /><img height="300" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Musee_national_-_alexandrie_facade_vue_large.JPG/120px-Musee_national_-_alexandrie_facade_vue_large.JPG" width="400" /><br /><br /><br />Alexandria Museum <br /><img height="300" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Misr_Train_Station_%2C_Alexandria.jpg/120px-Misr_Train_Station_%2C_Alexandria.jpg" width="400" /><br /><br /><br />Misr Train Station <br /><img height="300" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/San_Stefano_Grand_Plaza_2.jpg/120px-San_Stefano_Grand_Plaza_2.jpg" width="400" /><br /><br /><br />San Stefano Grand Plaza <br /><img height="300" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Alexandria-Sawary.jpg/120px-Alexandria-Sawary.jpg" width="400" /><br /><br /><br />Pompey's Pillar <br /><img height="300" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Stanley_Bridge.jpg/120px-Stanley_Bridge.jpg" width="400" /><br /><br /><br />Stanley Bridge <br /><img height="343" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Alexandria_-_Montaza_Palace_-_front_view.JPG/120px-Alexandria_-_Montaza_Palace_-_front_view.JPG" width="400" /><br /><br /><br />Montaza Palace <br /><img height="300" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flickr_-_dlisbona_-_Helnan_Palestine_hotel%2C_Montazah%2C_Alexandria.jpg/120px-Flickr_-_dlisbona_-_Helnan_Palestine_hotel%2C_Montazah%2C_Alexandria.jpg" width="400" /><br /><br /><br />Helnan Palestine hotel<br /><img height="300" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Pict0179.jpg/120px-Pict0179.jpg" width="400" /><br /><br /><br />Alexandria Opera House <br /><img height="266" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Alexandria_2133187.jpg/120px-Alexandria_2133187.jpg" width="400" /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Places of worship in Alexandria<br /><img height="300" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Abu_el-Abbas_el-Mursi_Mosque_in_Alexandria.jpg/120px-Abu_el-Abbas_el-Mursi_Mosque_in_Alexandria.jpg" width="400" /><br />El-Mursi Abul Abbas Mosque<br /><br />Latin Catholic church ofSaint Catherine in Mansheya<br /><br />Eliyahu Hanavi Synagogue<br /><br />The most famous mosque in Alexandria is El-Mursi Abul Abbas Mosque in Bahary. Other notable mosques in the city include Ali ibn Abi Talib mosque in Somouha,Bilal mosque, al-Gamaa al-Bahari in Mandara, Hatem mosque in Somouha, Hoda el-Islam mosque in Sidi Bishr, al-Mowasah mosque in Hadara, Sharq al-Madina mosque in Miami, al-Shohadaa mosque in Mostafa Kamel, Al Qa'ed Ibrahim Mosque, Yehia mosque in Zizinia, Sidi Gaber mosque in Sidi Gaber, and Sultan mosque.<br /><br /><br />After Rome, Alexandria was considered the major seat of Christianity in the world. The Pope of Alexandria was the second among equals, second only to the bishop ofRome, the capital of the Roman Empire until 430. The Church of Alexandria had jurisdiction over the entire continent of Africa. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, the Church of Alexandria was split between the Miaphysites and the Melkites. The Miaphysites went on to constitute what is known today as the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. The Melkites went on the constitute what is known today as the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. In the 19th century, Catholic andProtestant missionaries converted some of the adherents of the Orthodox churches to their respective faiths.<br /><br />Today, the patriarchal seat of the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church is Saint Mark Cathedral in Ramleh. The most important Coptic Orthodox churches in Alexandria include Pope Cyril I Church in Cleopatra, Saint Georges Church in Sporting, Saint Mark & Pope Peter I Church in Sidi Bishr, Saint Mary Church in Assafra, Saint Mary Church in Gianaclis, Saint Mina Church in Fleming, Saint Mina Church in Mandara, and Saint Takla Haymanot's Church in Ibrahimeya.<br /><br />The most important Greek Orthodox churches in Alexandria are Saint Anargyri Church, Church of the Annunciation, Saint Anthony Church, Archangels Gabriel&Michael Church,Taxiarchon, Saint Catherine Church, Cathedral of the Dormition in Mansheya, Church of the Dormition, Prophet Elijah Church, Saint Georges Church, Church of the Immaculate Conception in Ibrahemeya, Saint Joseph Church in Fleming, Saint Joseph of Arimathea Church, Saint Mark & Saint Nectarios Chapel in Ramleh, Saint Nicholas Church, Saint Paraskevi Church, Saint Sava Cathedral in Ramleh, and Saint Theodore Chapel. In communion with the Greek Orthodox Church is the Russian Orthodox church of Saint Alexander Nevsky in Alexandria, which serves the Russian speaking community in the city.<br /><br />Churches that follow the Latin Catholic rite include Saint Catherine Church in Mansheya and Church of the Jesuits in Cleopatra.<br /><br />The Saint Mark Church in Shatby, found as part of Collège Saint Marc is multi-denominational and hold liturgies according to Latin Catholic, Coptic Catholic and Coptic Orthodox rites. Copts in Alexandria have become more endangered in 2011.<br />[edit]Judaism<br />See also: History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt<br /><br />Alexandria's once-flourishing Jewish community declined rapidly following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, after which negative reactions towards Zionism among Egyptians led to Jewish residents in the city, and elsewhere in Egypt, being perceived as Zionist collaborators. Most Jewish residents of Egypt fled to the newly established State of Israel, France, Brazil, and other countries in the 1950s and 1960s. The community once numbered 50,000 but is now estimated at below 50. The most importantsynagogue in Alexandria is the <br /><br />Alexandria has a number of higher education institutions. Alexandria University is a public university that follows the Egyptian system of higher education. Many of its faculties are internationally renowned, most notably its Faculty of Medicine & Faculty of Engineering. In addition, the Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Transport is a semi-private educational institution that offers courses for high school, undergraduate level, and postgraduate students. It is considered the most reputable university in Egypt after the AUCAmerican University in Cairo because of its worldwide recognition from (board of engineers at UK & ABET in US). Université Senghor is a private French university that focuses on the teaching of humanities, politics and international relations, which mainly targets students from the African continent. Other institutions of higher education in Alexandria include Alexandria Institute of Technology (AIT) and Pharos University in Alexandria.<br /><br /><br />Alexandria has a long history of foreign educational institutions. The first foreign schools date to the early 19th century, when French missionaries began establishing French charitable schools to educate the Egyptians. Today, the most important French schools in Alexandria run by Catholic missionaries include Collège de la Mère de Dieu, Collège Notre Dame de Sion, Collège Saint Marc, Ecoles des Soeurs Franciscaines (four different schools), École Gérard, École Saint Gabriel, École Saint-Vincent de Paul, École saint joseph, École Sainte Catherine, and Institution Sainte Jeanne-Antide. As a reaction to the establishment of French religious institutions, a secular (laic) mission established Lycée el-Horreya, which initially followed a French system of education, but is currently a public school run by the Egyptian government. The only school in Alexandria that completely follows the French educational system is École Champollion. It is usually frequented by the children of French expatriates and diplomats in Alexandria.<br /><br />English schools in Alexandria are becoming the most popular schools. The most important English language schools in the city include: Riada Language School (RLS) Also known as "Leadership Schools of Languages",Alexandria Language School(ALS), Future Language School(FLS), Future International Schools :(Future IGCSE, Future American School and future new German school), Alexandria American School, British School of Alexandria, Egyptian American School, Modern American School, Sidi Gaber Language Schools, Riada American school, Taymour English School (TES), Sacred Heart Girls' School (SHS), Schutz American School, Victoria College, El Manar Language School for Girls, previously called (Scottish School for Girls), Kaumeya Language School (KLS), El Nasr Boys' School (EBS), and El Nasr Girls' College (EGC). Most of these schools were nationalized during the era ofNasser, and are currently Egyptian public schools run by the Egyptian ministry of education.<br /><br />There are only two German schools in Alexandria which are Deutsche Schule der Borromärinnen (DSB of Saint Charles Borromé) and Future Deutsche Schule.<br /><br />The Montessori educational system was first introduced in Alexandria in 2009 at Alexandria Montessori.<br /><br />N.B: The most notable public schools in Alexandria include, AlAbasseia High School, Gamal Abdel Nasser High School and EL Manar language School for girls.</i></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-9656192343289492522013-01-27T23:16:00.004-08:002013-01-27T23:16:44.459-08:00Royal Road<span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;">The </span><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;">Persian Royal Road</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Persian</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> king </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Darius the Great</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> (Darius I) of the</span><span style="font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Achaemenid Empire</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> in the 5th century BC.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> Darius built the road to facilitate rapid communication throughout his very large empire from </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Susa</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> to </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sardis</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> ("centralized rule is the victim of time and distance," </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Robin Lane Fox</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> has observed in this context).</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> Mounted couriers could travel 1,677 miles (2,699 km) in seven days; the journey from Susa to Sardis took ninety days on foot. The </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Greek</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> historian </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Herodotus</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"><i> wrote, "There is nothing in the world that travels faster th</i>a<i>n these Persian couriers." Herodotus's praise for these messengers—"Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor darkness of night prevents these couriers from completing their designated stages with utmost speed"— was inscribed on the </i></span><span style="font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">James Farley Post Office</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;"> in New York and is sometimes thought of as the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">United States Postal Service creed</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;">.</span>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The course of the road has been reconstructed from the writings of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Herodotus</span>,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">archeological</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> research, and other historical records. It began in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Asia Minor</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (on the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Aegean</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> coast of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Lydia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, about 60 miles east of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">İzmir</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in present-day </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkey</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">), traveled east through what is now the middle northern section of Turkey, (crossing the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Halys</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> according to Herodotus) and passed through the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Cilician Gates</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to the old </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Assyrian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> capital </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nineveh</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (present-day </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mosul</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Iraq</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">), then turned south to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Babylon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (near present-day </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Baghdad</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Iraq</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">). From near Babylon, it is believed to have split into two routes, one traveling northeast then east through</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ecbatana</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and on along the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Silk Road</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the other continuing east through the future Persian capital </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Susa</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (in present-day </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Iran</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) and then southeast to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Persepolis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Of course, such long routes for travellers and tradesmen would often take months on end, and so during the reign of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Darius the Great</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> numerous royal outposts (</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Caravanserai</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) were built.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Because the road did not follow the shortest nor the easiest route between the important cities of the Persian Empire, archeologists believe the westernmost sections of the road may have originally been built by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Assyrian</span> kings, as the road plunges through the heart of their old empire. More eastern segments of the road, identifiable in present-day northern Iran, were not noted by Herodotus, whose view of Persia was that of an Ionian Greek in the West;</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">stretches of the Royal Road across the central plateau of Iran are coincident with the major trade route known as the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Silk Road</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">However, Darius I made the Royal Road as it is recognized today. A later improvement by the Romans of a road bed with a hard-packed gravelled surface of 6.25 m width held within a stone curbing was found in a stretch near Gordium</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and connecting the parts together in a unified whole stretching some 1500 miles, primarily as a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">post road</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, with a hundred and eleven posting stations maintained with a supply of fresh horses, a quick mode of communication using relays of swift mounted messengers, the kingdom's </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">pirradazis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i>The construction of the road as improved by Darius was of such quality that the road continued to be used until <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Roman</span> times. A bridge at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Diyarbakır</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkey</span>, still stands from this period of the road's use. The road also helped Persia increase long-distance trade, which reached its peak during the time of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander the Great</span> (Alexander III of Macedon).</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In 1961, under a grant from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">American Philosophical Society</span>, S. F. Starr traced the stretch of road from Gordium to Sardis, identifying river crossings by ancient bridge abutments.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Euclid</span> is said to have replied to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">King Ptolemy's</span> request for an easier way of learning mathematics that "there is no Royal Road to geometry," following <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Proclus</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Charles Sanders Peirce</span>, in his <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">How to Make Our Ideas Clear</span> (1878), says, "There is no royal road to logic, and really valuable ideas can only be had at the price of close attention." This essay was claimed by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">William James</span> as instrumental in the foundation of the philosophical school of pragmatism. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sigmund Freud</span> also famously described dreams as the "royal road to the unconscious" </i></div>
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<i>The Royal Road to Romance (1925) is the first book by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Richard Halliburton</span>, covering his world travels as a young man from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Andorra</span> to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Angkor</span>.</i></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-83785905860529122642013-01-27T05:54:00.003-08:002013-01-27T23:12:30.863-08:00 Silk Road <i> T<span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">he</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Silk Road</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">(from</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">German</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">:</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span lang="de" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;" xml:lang="de">Seidenstraße</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">) or</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Silk Route</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">is a modern term referring to a historical network of interlinking trade routes across the Afro-Eurasian landmass that connected</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">East</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">,</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">South</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, and</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Western Asia</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">with the</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mediterranean</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">and</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">European</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">world, as well as parts of</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">North</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">and</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">East Africa</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">. Extending 4,000 miles (6,500 km), the Silk Road gets its name from the lucrative Chinese</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">silk</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">trade along it, which began during the</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Han Dynasty</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">(206 BC – 220 AD). The central Asian sections of the trade routes were expanded around 114 BC by the Han dynasty,</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">largely through the missions and explorations of</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Zhang Qian</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">,</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">but earlier trade routes across the continents already existed.</span></i><br />
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<i>Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the civilizations of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">China</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">India</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persia</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Europe</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arabia</span>. Though silk was certainly the major trade item from China, many other goods were traded, and various technologies, religions and philosophies, as well as the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">bubonic plague</span> (the "<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Black Death</span>"), also traveled along the Silk Routes.</i></div>
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<i>The main traders during Antiquity were the Indian and Bactrian traders, then from the 5th to the 8th century the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sogdian</span> traders, then afterward the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arab and Persian traders</span>.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The Silk Road gets its name from the lucrative Chinese <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">silk</span> trade, a major reason for the connection of trade routes into an extensive transcontinental network.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The German terms "Seidenstraße" and "Seidenstraßen"- 'the Silk Road(s)' or 'Silk Route(s)' were coined by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ferdinand von Richthofen</span>, who made seven expeditions to China from 1868 to 1872.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Some scholars prefer the term "Silk Routes" because the road included an extensive network of routes, though few were more than rough caravan tracks.</span></i></div>
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<i>As the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">domestication</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">pack animals</span> and the development of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">shipping</span> technology both increased the capacity for <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">prehistoric</span> peoples to carry heavier loads over greater distances, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">cultural exchanges</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">trade</span> developed rapidly. In addition, grassland provides fertile grazing, water, and easy passage for <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">caravans</span>. The vast grassland <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">steppes</span> of Asia enabled <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">merchants</span> to travel immense distances, from the shores of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pacific</span> to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Africa</span> and deep into <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Europe</span>, without trespassing on agricultural lands and arousing hostility.</i></div>
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<i>From the 2nd millennium BC <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">nephrite</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">jade</span> was being traded from mines in the region of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yarkand</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Khotan</span> to China. Significantly, these mines were not very far from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">lapis lazuli</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">spinel</span> ("Balas Ruby") mines in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Badakhshan</span> and, although separated by the formidable <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pamir Mountains</span>, routes across them were, apparently, in use from very early times.
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<i>The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tarim mummies</span> have been found in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tarim Basin</span>, in the area of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Loulan</span> located along the Silk Road 200 km East of Yingpan, dating to as early as 1600 BC and suggesting very ancient contacts between East and West. These mummified remains may have been of people who spoke <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indo-European languages</span>, that remained in use in the Tarim Basin, in the modern day <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Xinjiang</span> region, until replaced by Turkic influences from the northern<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Xiongnu Empire</span>, and by Chinese influences from the eastern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Han Dynasty</span>, who spoke a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sino-Tibetan language</span>.</i></div>
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<i>Following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western border territories in the 8th century BC, gold was introduced from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Central Asia</span>, and Hotan Kashteshi Hotan jade carvers began to make imitation designs of the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">steppes</span>, adopting the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Scythian</span>-style animal art of the steppes (depictions of animals locked in combat). This style is particularly reflected in the rectangular belt plaques made of gold and bronze with alternate versions in jade and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">steatite</span>.</i></div>
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<i>The expansion of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Scythian</span> cultures stretching from the Hungarian plain and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Carpathians</span> to the Chinese<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kansu</span> Corridor and linking Iran, and the Middle East with Northern India and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Punjab</span>, undoubtedly played an important role in the development of the Silk Road. Scythians accompanied the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Assyrian</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Esarhaddon</span> on his invasion of Egypt, and their distinctive triangular arrowheads have been found as far south as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aswan</span>. These nomadic peoples were dependent upon neighbouring settled populations for a number of important technologies, and in addition to raiding vulnerable settlements for these commodities, also encouraged long distance merchants as a source of income through the enforced payment of tariffs. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Soghdian</span> Scythian merchants played a vital role in later periods in the development of the Silk Road.</i></div>
<i><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">By the time of </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Herodotus</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> (c. 475 BC), the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Royal Road</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> of the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Persian Empire</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> ran some 2,857 km from the city of </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Susa</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> on the Karun (250 km east of the Tigris) to the port of Smyrna (modern </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">İzmir</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> in </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkey</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">) on the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Aegean Sea</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> It was maintained and protected by the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Achaemenid Empire</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> (c. 500–330 BC), and had postal stations and relays at regular intervals. By having fresh horses and riders ready at each relay, royal couriers could carry messages the entire distance in nine days, while normal travellers took about three months. This Royal Road linked into many other routes. Some of these, such as the routes to India and Central Asia, were also protected by the Achaemenids, encouraging regular contact between India, Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean. There are accounts in the biblical </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Book of Esther</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> of dispatches being sent from Susa to provinces as far out as India and the Kingdom of Kush during the reign of </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Xerxes the Great</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> (485–465 BC).</span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The first major step in opening the Silk Road between the East and the West came with the expansion of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander the Great</span>'s empire into<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Central Asia</span>. In August 329 BC, at the mouth of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Fergana Valley</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tajikistan</span> he founded the city of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexandria Eschate</span> or "Alexandria The Furthest".</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">This later became a major staging point on the northern Silk Route.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Greeks</span> remained in Central Asia for the next three centuries, first through the administration of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seleucid Empire</span>, and then with the establishment of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bactria</span>. They continued to expand eastward, especially during the reign of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Euthydemus</span> (230–200 BC) who extended his control beyond Alexandria Eschate to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sogdiana</span>. There are indications that he may have led expeditions as far as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kashgar</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chinese Turkestan</span>, leading to the first known contacts between China and the West around 200 BC. The Greek historian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Strabo</span> writes "they extended their empire even as far as the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seres</span> (China) and the Phryni." </span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">With the Mediterranean linked to the Fergana Valley, the next step was to open a route across the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Tarim Basin</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gansu Corridor</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">China Proper</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. This came around 130 BC, with the embassies of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Han Dynasty</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to Central Asia, following the reports of the ambassador </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Zhang Qian</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (who was originally sent to obtain an alliance with the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Yuezhi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> against the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Xiongnu</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">). After the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">defeat of the Xiongnu</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, however, Chinese armies established themselves in Central Asia, starting the famed Silk Road, which became a major avenue of international trade.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Some say that the Chinese </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Emperor Wu</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> became interested in developing commercial relationships with the sophisticated urban civilizations of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ferghana</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bactria</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Parthian Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">: "The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Ferghana (</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Dayuan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) and the possessions of Bactria (</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ta-Hsia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) and Parthian Empire (</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Anxi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China" (</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Hou Hanshu</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Later Han History</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">). Others</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> say that Emperor Wu was mainly interested in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">fighting the Xiongnu</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and that major trade began only after the Chinese pacified the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hexi Corridor</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i><br />
<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The Chinese were also strongly attracted by the tall and powerful horses (named "Heavenly horses") in the possession of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Dayuan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which were of capital importance in fighting the nomadic Xiongnu. The Chinese subsequently sent numerous embassies, around ten every year, to these countries and as far as </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Seleucid</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Syria. "Thus more embassies were dispatched to Anxi [Parthia], Yancai [who later joined the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Alans</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> ], Lijian [Syria under the Seleucids], Tiaozhi [Chaldea], and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Tianzhu</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> [northwestern India]… As a rule, rather more than ten such missions went forward in the course of a year, and at the least five or six." (</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Hou Hanshu</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, Later Han History). The Roman historian </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Florus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> also describes the visit of numerous envoys, including </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seres</span></span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, to the first Roman Emperor </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Augustus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, who reigned between 27 BC and 14 AD:</span>
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<i><span style="color: lime;">Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror of nations. Thus even Scythians and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sarmatians</span> sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome. Nay, the Seres came likewise, and the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four years. In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours.</span></i></div>
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<span style="color: red;">— <cite style="font-style: inherit;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Henry Yule</span>, <i>Cathay and the way thither</i></cite></span></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The "Silk Road" originated during the 1st century BC, following efforts by the Yuezhi and Xiongnu in the Tarim Basin to consolidate a road to the Western world and India, both through direct settlements in the area of the Tarim Basin and diplomatic relations with the countries of the Dayuan, Parthians and Bactrians further west. The Silk Roads were a "complex network of trade routes" that gave people the chance to exchange goods and culture.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Soon after the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Roman</span> conquest of Egypt in 30 BC, regular communications and trade between China, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Southeast Asia</span>, India, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Middle East</span>, Africa and Europe blossomed on an unprecedented scale. The Greco-<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Roman trade with India</span> started by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</span> in 130 BC kept on increasing, and according to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Strabo</span> (II.5.12), by the time of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Augustus</span>, up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The party of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maës Titianus</span> became the travellers who penetrated farthest east along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world, probably with the aim of regularizing contacts and reducing the role of middlemen, during one of the lulls in Rome's intermittent wars with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Parthia</span>, which repeatedly obstructed movement along the Silk Road. Intercontinental trade and communication became regular, organized, and protected by the 'Great Powers.' Intense <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">trade with the Roman Empire</span> soon followed, confirmed by the Roman craze for Chinese silk (supplied through the Parthians), even though the Romans thought silk was obtained from trees. This belief was affirmed by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seneca the Younger</span> in his <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Phaedra</span> and by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Virgil</span> in his <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Georgics</span>. Notably, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pliny the Elder</span> knew better. Speaking of the bombyx or silk moth, he wrote in his <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Natural Histories</span> "They weave webs, like spiders, that become a luxurious clothing material for women, called silk."</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The Roman Senate issued, in vain, several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk, on economic and moral grounds: the importation of Chinese silk caused a huge outflow of gold, and silk clothes were considered to be decadent and immoral:</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes… Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The unification of Central Asia and Northern India within <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kushan Empire</span> in the 1st to 3rd centuries reinforced the role of the powerful merchants from Bactria and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Taxila</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">They fostered multi-cultural interaction as indicated by their 2nd century treasure hoards filled with products from the Greco-Roman world, China and India, such as in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">archeological site of Begram</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i>The Roman Empire, and its demand for sophisticated Asian products, crumbled in the West around the 5th century.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Byzantine historian Procopius stated that two Christian monks eventually uncovered the way of how silk was made. From this revelation spies were sent to steal the silkworm eggs, resulting in silk production in the Mediterranean.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i>The Silk Road represents an early phenomenon of political and cultural integration due to inter-regional trade. In its heyday, it sustained an international culture that strung together groups as diverse as the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Magyars</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Armenians</span>, and Chinese. The route experienced its prime periods of popularity and activity in differing eras at different points along its length.</i></div>
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<i>In the west, the Silk Road reached its peak during the time of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantine Empire</span>; in the Nile-<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Oxus</span> section, from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sassanid Empire</span> period to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Il Khanate</span> period; and in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">sinitic</span> zone from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Three Kingdoms</span> period to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yuan Dynasty</span> period. Trade between East and West also developed on the sea, between Alexandria in Egypt and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Guangzhou</span> in China, fostering across the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indian Ocean</span>.</i></div>
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<i>Under its strong integrating dynamics on the one hand and the impacts of change it transmitted on the other, tribal societies previously living in isolation along the Silk Road or pastoralists who were of barbarian cultural development were drawn to the riches and opportunities of the civilizations connected by the Silk Road, taking on the trades of marauders or mercenaries. Many barbarian tribes became skilled warriors able to conquer rich cities and fertile lands, and forge strong military empires.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">A.V. Dybo noted that "according to historians, the main driving force of the Great Silk Road were not just Sogdians, but the carriers of a mixed Sogdian-Türkic culture that often came from mixed families." </span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sogdians</span> dominated the East-West trade after the 4th century up to the 8th century, with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Suyab</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Talas</span> ranking among their main centers in the north. They were the main caravan merchants of Central Asia. Their commercial interests were protected by the resurgent military power of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Göktürks</span>, whose empire has been described as "the joint enterprise of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ashina</span> clan and the Soghdians".</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Their trades with some interruptions continued in the 9th century within the framework of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Uighur Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which until 840 extended across northern Central Asia and obtained from China enormous deliveries of silk in exchange for horses. At this time caravans of Sogdians traveling to Upper Mongolia are mentioned in Chinese sources. They played an equally important religious and cultural role. Part of the data about eastern Asia provided by Muslim geographers of the 10th century actually goes back to Sogdian data of the period 750–840 and thus shows the survival of links between east and west. However, after the end of the Uighur Empire, Sogdian trade went through a crisis. What mainly issued from Muslim Central Asia was the trade of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Samanids</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which resumed the northwestern road leading to the Khazars and the Urals and the northeastern one toward the nearby Turkic tribes.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The Silk Road gave rise to the clusters of military states of nomadic origins in North China, invited the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nestorian</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Manichaean</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Buddhist</span>, and later<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Islamic</span> religions into Central Asia and China, created the influential <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Khazar Federation</span> and at the end of its glory, brought about the largest continental empire ever: the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mongol Empire</span>, with its political centers strung along the Silk Road (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Beijing</span> in North China, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karakorum</span> in central Mongolia,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sarmakhand</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Transoxiana</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tabriz</span> in Northern Iran, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sarai</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Astrakhan</span> in lower <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Volga</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Solkhat</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Crimea</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kazan</span> in Central Russia, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Erzurum</span> in eastern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anatolia</span>), realizing the political unification of zones previously loosely and intermittently connected by material and cultural goods.</i></div>
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<i>In Central Asia, Islam expanded from the 7th century onward, bringing a stop to Chinese westward expansion at the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of Talas</span> in 751. Further expansion of the Islamic Turks in Central Asia from the 10th century finished disrupting trade in that part of the world, and Buddhism almost disappeared. For much of the Middle Ages, the Islamic <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Caliphate</span> (centred in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Near East</span>) often had a monopoly over much of the trade conducted across the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Old World</span> (see <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Muslim age of discovery</span> for more details).</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mongol expansion</span> throughout the Asian continent from around 1207 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-establish the Silk Road (via<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karakorum</span>). It also brought an end to the Islamic Caliphate's monopoly over world trade. Because the Mongols had dominated the trade routes, it allowed more trade to come in and out of the region. Merchandise that did not seem valuable to the Mongols was often seen as very valuable by the west. As a result, the Mongols received in return a large amount of luxurious goods from the West. However, they never abandoned their nomadic lifestyle. Soon after Genghis Khan died, the Silk Road was in the hand of Genghis Khans' daughters. The Mongol diplomat <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Rabban Bar Sauma</span> visited the courts of Europe in 1287–1288 and provided a detailed written report back to the Mongols. Around the same time, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Venetian</span> explorer <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Marco Polo</span>became one of the first Europeans to travel the Silk Road to China, and his tales, documented in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">The Travels of Marco Polo</span>, opened Western eyes to some of the customs of the Far East. He was not the first to bring back stories, but he was one of the widest-read. He had been preceded by numerous Christian missionaries to the East, such as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">William of Rubruck</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Benedykt Polak</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Giovanni da Pian del Carpine</span>, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Andrew of Longjumeau</span>. Later envoys included <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Odoric of Pordenone</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Giovanni de' Marignolli</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">John of Montecorvino</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Niccolò de' Conti</span>, or <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ibn Battuta</span>, a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Moroccan</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Muslim</span>traveller, who passed through the present-day <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Middle East</span> and across the Silk Road from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tabriz</span>, between 1325–1354.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The 13th century also saw attempts at a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Franco-Mongol alliance</span>, with exchange of ambassadors and (failed) attempts at military collaboration in the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Holy Land</span> during the later <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Crusades</span>, though eventually the Mongols in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ilkhanate</span>, after they had destroyed the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Abbasid</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ayyubid</span> dynasties, eventually themselves converted to Islam, and signed the 1323 <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Treaty of Aleppo</span> with the surviving Muslim power, the Egyptian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mamluks</span>.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Some research studies indicate that the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Black Death</span>, which devastated Europe in the late 1340s, may have reached from Central Asia (or China) to Europe along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The fragmentation of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mongol Empire</span> loosened the political, cultural and economic unity of the Silk Road. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkmeni</span> marching lords seized land around the western part of the Silk Road, belonging to the decaying <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantine Empire</span>. After the Mongol Empire, the great political powers along the Silk Road became economically and culturally separated. Accompanying the crystallization of regional states was the decline of nomad power, partly due to the devastation of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Black Death</span> and partly due to the encroachment of sedentary civilizations equipped with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">gunpowder</span>.</i></div>
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<i>Gunpowder and early <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">modernity</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Europe</span> led to the integration of territorial states and increasing <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">mercantilism</span>. Meanwhile on the Silk Road, gunpowder and early modernity had the opposite impact: the level of integration of the Mongol Empire could not be maintained, and trade declined (though partly due to an increase in European maritime exchanges).</i></div>
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<i>The Silk Road stopped serving as a shipping route for silk about 1453 with the Ottoman supremacy at Constantinople. Ottoman rulers of the day were anti-western, countering the crusades, and aware of the loss of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Andalusia</span> in the west, so expressed their displeasure by embargoing trade with the west. Things had eased a bit around a century later, and Venice was able to cut an uneasy deal with the Ottomans, regaining for a time some of their economic clout as middlemen.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The disappearance of the Silk Road following the end of the Mongols' reign was one of the main factors that stimulated the Europeans to reach the prosperous Chinese empire through another route, especially by sea. Tremendous profits were to be obtained for anyone who could achieve a direct trade connection with Asia. This was the main driving factor for the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Portuguese explorations</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of the Indian Ocean, including the sea of China, resulting in the arrival in 1513 of the first European trading ship to the coasts of China, under </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Jorge Álvares</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Rafael Perestrello</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, followed by the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Fernão Pires de Andrade</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Tomé Pires</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> diplomatic and commercial mission of 1517, under the orders of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Manuel I of Portugal</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which opened formally relations between the</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Portuguese Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ming Dynasty</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> during the reign of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Zhengde Emperor</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. The handover of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Macau</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (Macao) to Portugal in 1557 by the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Emperor of China</span><span style="line-height: 10px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (as a reward for services rendered against the pirates who infested the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">South China Sea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) resulted in the first permanent European maritime trade post between Europe and China, with other European powers following suit over the next centuries, which caused the eventual demise of the Silk Road.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">When he went West in 1492, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Christopher Columbus</span> reportedly wished to create yet another trade route to China.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> It was initially a great disappointment to have found a continent "in-between" before recognizing the potential of a "New World".</span></i></div>
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<i>In 1594, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Willem Barents</span> left Amsterdam with two ships to search for the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Northeast passage</span> north of Siberia, on to eastern Asia. He reached the west coast of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Novaya Zemlya</span> and followed it northward, being finally forced to turn back when confronted with its northern extremity. By the end of the 17th century, the Russians re-established a land trade route between Europe and China under the name of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Great Siberian Road</span>.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The desire to trade directly with China and India was also the main driving force behind the expansion of the Portuguese beyond Africa after 1480, followed by the Netherlands and England from the 17th century. While the Portuguese (and, subsequently, other Europeans) were entering China from its southern coast, by the sea route, the question arose as to whether it happens to be the same country as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cathay</span> which Marco had reached by the overland route. By c. 1600, the Jesuits stationed in China, led by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Matteo Ricci</span>, were pretty sure that it was, but others were not convinced yet. To check the situation on the ground, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bento de Góis</span>, a Portuguese former soldier and explorer who had joined the Jesuits as a Lay Brother in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Goa, India</span>, traveled in 1603–1605 from India via <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Afghanistan</span> and one of the routes of the traditional Silk Road (via <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Badakhshan</span>, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pamirs</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yarkand</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kucha</span>, and<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turpan</span> to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ming China</span>'s border as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Suzhou, Gansu</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Leibniz</span>, echoing the prevailing perception in Europe until the Industrial Revolution, wrote in the 17th century that: Everything exquisite and admirable comes from the East Indies... Learned people have remarked that in the whole world there is no commerce comparable to that of China.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In the 18th century, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Adam Smith</span> declared that China had been one of the most prosperous nations in the world, but that it had remained stagnant for a long time and its wages always were low and the lower classes were particularly poor:</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">China has long been one of the richest, that is, one of the most fertile, best cultivated, most industrious, and most populous countries in the world. It seems, however, to have been long stationary. Marco Polo, who visited it more than five hundred years ago, describes its cultivation, industry, and populousness, almost in the same terms as travellers in the present time describe them. It had perhaps, even long before his time, acquired that full complement of riches which the nature of its laws and institutions permits it to acquire.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eurasian Land Bridge</span> is sometimes referred to as the "New Silk Road". The last link in a railway route along the Silk Road was completed in 1990, when the railway systems of China and Kazakhstan connected in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alataw Pass</span> (Alashan Kou). Currently (2008), the line is used by direct passenger service from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Urumqi</span> in China's <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Xinjiang</span> to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Almaty</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Astana</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kazakhstan</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><br />Since July 2011 <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chongqing</span> is officially linked to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Duisburg</span>, Germany by a freight rail across Eurasia.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Compared to the traditional sea trade routes from Guangzhou and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Shanghai</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the rail link to Europe cuts travel time to Europe from about 36 days by container ship to just 13 days by freight train.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The Silk Road comprised several routes.</span>
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<i>As it extends westwards from the ancient commercial centers of China, the overland, intercontinental Silk Road divides into the northern and southern routes by passing the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Taklimakan Desert</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lop Nur</span>.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <b>northern route</b> started at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chang'an</span> (now called <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Xi'an</span>), the capital of the ancient Chinese Kingdom, which, in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Later Han</span>, was moved further east to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Luoyang</span>. The route was defined about the 1st century BC as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Han Wudi</span> put an end to harassment by nomadic tribes.</span><span style="line-height: 10px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The northern route travelled northwest through the Chinese province of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gansu</span> from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shaanxi</span> Province, and split into three further routes, two of them following the mountain ranges to the north and south of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Taklamakan Desert</span> to rejoin at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kashgar</span>; and the other going north of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tian Shan</span> mountains through <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turpan</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Talgar</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Almaty</span> (in what is now southeast <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kazakhstan</span>). The routes split again west of Kashgar, with a southern branch heading down the Alai Valley towards <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Termez</span> (in modern Uzbekistan) and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Balkh</span> (Afghanistan), while the other traveled through <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kokand</span> in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Fergana Valley</span> (in present-day eastern Uzbekistan) and then west across the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karakum Desert</span>. Both routes joined the main southern route before reaching <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Merv</span> (Turkmenistan). A route for caravans, the northern Silk Road brought to China many goods such as "dates, saffron powder and pistachio nuts from Persia; <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">frankincense</span>, aloes and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">myrrh</span> from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Somalia</span>; sandalwood from India; glass bottles from Egypt, and other expensive and desirable goods from other parts of the world."</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In exchange, the caravans sent back bolts of silk brocade, lacquer ware and porcelain. Another branch of the northern route turned northwest past the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Aral Sea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and north of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Caspian Sea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, then and on to the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Black Sea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i>The <b>southern route</b> or <b>Karakoram route</b> was mainly a single route running from China, through the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karakoram</span>, where it persists to modern times as the international paved road connecting Pakistan and China as the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karakoram Highway</span>. It then set off westwards, but with southward spurs enabling the journey to be completed by sea from various points. Crossing the high mountains, it passed through northern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pakistan</span>, over the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hindu Kush</span> mountains, and into Afghanistan, rejoining the northern route near <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Merv</span>. From there, it followed a nearly straight line west through mountainous northern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iran</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mesopotamia</span> and the northern tip of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Syrian Desert</span> to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Levant</span>, where <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mediterranean</span> trading ships plied regular routes to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Italy</span>, while land routes went either north through <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anatolia</span> or south to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">North Africa</span>. Another branch road traveled from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Herat</span> through <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Susa</span> to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Charax Spasinu</span> at the head of the Persian Gulf and across to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Petra</span> and on to<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexandria</span> and other eastern Mediterranean ports from where ships carried the cargoes to Rome.</i></div>
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<i>The <b>southwest route</b> is believed to be the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ganges</span>/<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahmaputra</span> Delta which has been the subject of international interest for over two millennia. Strabo, the 1st Century Roman writer, mentions the deltaic lands: ‘Regarding merchants who now sail from Egypt…as far as the Ganges, they are only private citizens...’ His comments seem to be interesting since the Roman beads and other materials are being found at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Wari-Bateshwar ruins</span>, the ancient city with roots from much earlier before the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bronze Age</span> presently being slowly excavated beside the Old Brahmaputra in<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bangladesh</span>. Ptolemy’s map of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ganges Delta</span>, a remarkably accurate piece of mapping, showed quite clearly that his informants knew all about the course of the Brahmaputra River, crossing through the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Himalayas</span> then bending westward to its source in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tibet</span>. It is doubtless that this delta was a major international trading center, almost certainly from much earlier than the Common Era. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gemstones</span> and other merchandise from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thailand</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Java</span> were traded in the delta and through it. A famous Chinese archaeological writer Bin Yang, whose work, ‘Between Winds and Clouds; The Making of Yunnan’, published in 2004 by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Columbia University</span> press and some earlier writers and archaeologists, such as Janice Stargardt strongly suggest this route of international trade as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sichuan</span>-<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yunnan</span>-<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Burma</span>-<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bangladesh</span> route. According to Bin Yang, especially from the 12th century the route was used to ship bullion from Yunnan (Gold and Silver being amongst the minerals in which Yunnan is rich), through northern Burma, into modern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bangladesh</span>, making use of the ancient route, known as the ‘Ledo’ route. The emerging evidence of the ancient cities of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bangladesh</span>, in particular <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Wari-Bateshwar ruins</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mahasthangarh</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bhitagarh</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bikrampur</span>, Egarasindhur and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sonargaon</span> are believed to be the international trade centers in this route.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Richard Foltz</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Xinru Liu</span> and others have described how trading activities along the Silk Road over many centuries facilitated the transmission not just of goods but also ideas and culture, notably in the area of religions. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Zoroastrianism</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Judaism</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Buddhism</span>,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Christianity</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Manichaeism</span>, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Islam</span> all spread across Eurasia through trade networks that were tied to specific religious communities and their institutions.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The spread of religions and cultural traditions along the Silk Roads, according to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Jerry H. Bentley</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, also led to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">syncretism</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. One example was the encounter with the Chinese and Xiongnu nomads. These unlikely events of cross-cultural contact allowed both cultures to adapt to each other as an alternative. The Xiongnu adopted Chinese agricultural techniques, dress style, and lifestyle. On the other hand, the Chinese adopted Xiongnu military techniques, some dress style, and music and dance.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Of all the cultural exchanges between China and the Xiongnu, the defection of Chinese soldiers was perhaps the most surprising. They would sometimes convert to the Xiongnu way of life and stay in the stepps for fear of punishment.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Many artistic influences were transmitted via the Silk Road, particularly through <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Central Asia</span>, where <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hellenistic</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iranian</span>, Indian and Chinese influences could intermix. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Greco-Buddhist art</span>represents one of the most vivid examples of this interaction.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">These artistic influences can also be seen in the development of Buddhism, where, for instance, Buddha was first depicted as human in the Kushan period. Many scholars have attributed this to Greek influence. The mixture of Greek and Indian elements can be found in later Buddhist art in China and throughout countries on the Silk Road.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century AD, according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ming</span> (58–75 AD). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast, East, and Central Asia.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The Buddhist movement was the first large-scale missionary movement in the history of world religions. Buddha’s community of followers, the Sangha, consisted of male and female monks and laity. These people moved through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century AD, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kushan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> empire into the Chinese territory of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Tarim Basin</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, due to the missionary efforts of a great number of Central Asian Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Parthian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, Kushan, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sogdian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> or </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kuchean</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">One result of the spread of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Buddhism</span> along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia due to a new Iranian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dynasty</span> called the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Parthians</span> at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk. The Parthians were Buddhists and, because they found themselves in a main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city of Marv became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the 2nd century.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Knowledge among people on the silk roads also increased when Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268-239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>From the 4th century onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to India, in order to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures, with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Fa-hsien</span>'s pilgrimage to India (395–414), and later <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Xuan Zang</span> (629–644) and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hyecho</span>, who traveled from Korea to India. The legendary accounts of the holy priest Xuan Zang were described in a novel called Journey to the West, which told of trials with demons, but also the help of various disciples on the journey.</i></div>
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<span style="font-style: italic; line-height: 19px;">There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major nikaya schools. These were both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as “Great Vehicle”. This movement of Buddhism first gained influence in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Khotan</span> region.</span><span style="font-style: italic; line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><i> The Mahayana, which was more of a “pan-Buddhist movement” than a school of Buddhism, appears to have begun in north western India or Central Asia. It was small at first and formed during the 1st century BCE, and the origins of this “Greater Vehicle” are not fully clear. Some Mahayana scripts were found in northern Pakistan but the main texts are still believed to have been composed in Central Asia along the Silk Road. These different schoo</i>l<i>s and movements of Buddhism were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road.</i></span><span style="font-style: italic; line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">During the 5th and 6th centuries BCE, Merchants played a large role in the spread of religion, in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism to be an appealing alternative to previous religions. As a result, Merchants supported Buddhist Monasteries along the Silk Roads and in return the Buddhists gave the Merchants somewhere to stay as they traveled from city to city. As a result, Merchants spread Buddhism to foreign encounters as they traveled.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Merchants also helped to establish </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">diaspora</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> within the communities they encountered and overtime their cultures became based on Buddhism. Because of this, these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well-organized marketplaces, lodging, and storage.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century with the rise of Islam in Central Asia.</span></i></div>
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<i>Both <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bishkek</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Almaty</span> now have a major east-west street named after the Silk Road </i></div>
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<i>Artifacts from the history of the Silk Route are displayed at the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Silk Route Museum</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Jiuquan</span>, China.</i></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-53930942610886861162013-01-27T02:58:00.005-08:002013-01-27T03:59:55.387-08:00Alexander the Great<br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><b>Alexander III of Macedon</b> (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as <b>Alexander the Great</b> was a king of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Macedon</span>, a state in northern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">ancient Greece</span>. Born in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pella</span> in 356 BC, Alexander was tutored by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aristotle</span> until the age of 16. By the age of thirty, he had created one of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">largest empires</span> of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">ancient world</span>, stretching from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ionian Sea</span> to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Himalayas</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history's most successful commanders.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander succeeded his father, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Philip II of Macedon</span>, to the throne in 336 BC after Philip was assassinated. Upon Philip's death, Alexander inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. He was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father's military expansion plans. In 334 BC, he invaded <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persian</span>-ruled <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Asia Minor</span> and began a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">series of campaigns</span> that lasted ten years. Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Issus</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gaugamela</span>. He subsequently overthrew the Persian King <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Darius III</span> and conquered the entirety of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persian Empire</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">At that point, his empire stretched from the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Adriatic Sea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Indus River</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i>Seeking to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea", he <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">invaded India</span> in 326 BC, but was eventually forced to turn back at the demand of his troops. Alexander died in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Babylon</span> in 323 BC, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arabia</span>. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Diadochi</span>, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander's legacy includes the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">cultural diffusion</span> his conquests engendered. He founded some <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">twenty cities that bore his name</span>, most notably<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexandria</span> in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hellenistic civilization</span>, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantine Empire</span> in the mid-15th century. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Achilles</span>, and he features prominently in the history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">military academies</span> throughout the world still teach his tactics.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander was born on the 6th day of the ancient Greek month of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hekatombaion</span>, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is not known,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pella</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the capital of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ancient Greek</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kingdom of Macedon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> He was the son of the king of Macedon, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Philip II</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and his fourth wife, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Olympias</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the daughter of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Neoptolemus I</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, king of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Epirus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely a result of giving birth to Alexander.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Roisman_2010_188_10-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">]</span></sup> According to the ancient Greek biographer <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Plutarch</span>, Olympias, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunder bolt, causing a flame that spread "far and wide" before dying away. Some time after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">seal</span> engraved with a lion's image.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Zeus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">On the day that Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">siege</span> on the city of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Potidea</span> on the peninsula of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chalcidice</span>. That same day, Philip received news that his general <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Parmenion</span> had defeated the combined <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Illyrian</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Paeonian</span> armies, and that his horses had won at the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Olympic Games</span>. It was also said that on this day, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Temple of Artemis</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ephesus</span>, one of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seven Wonders of the World</span>, burnt down. This led <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hegesias of Magnesia</span> to say that it had burnt down because <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Artemis</span> was away, attending the birth of Alexander.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his own instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lanike</span>, sister of Alexander's future general <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cleitus the Black</span>. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Leonidas</span>, a relative of his mother, and by Philip's general <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lysimachus</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">lyre</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, ride, fight, and hunt.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thessaly</span> brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">talents</span>. The horse refused to be mounted and Philip ordered it away. Alexander however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander named it </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bucephalas</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pakistan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. When the animal died (due to old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bucephala</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The primary (actually secondary) accounts are two: </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Plutarch</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">'s </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Life of Alexander</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, 6, and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Arrian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">'s </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anabasis Alexandri</span></span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> V.19.</ref> state that Bucephalus died after the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Battle of the Hydaspes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in 326 BC, in what is now modern </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pakistan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and is buried in</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Jalalpur Sharif</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> outside of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Jhelum</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pakistan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Another account states that Bucephalus is buried in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Phalia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a town in Pakistan's </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mandi Bahauddin District</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which is named after him.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">tutor</span>, and considered such academics as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Isocrates</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Speusippus</span>, the latter offering to resign to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aristotle</span> and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mieza</span> as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Stageira</span>, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hephaistion</span>, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cassander</span>. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the 'Companions'. Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Homer</span>, and in particular the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iliad</span>; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">At age 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war against <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantion</span>, leaving Alexander in charge as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">regent</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">heir apparent</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">During Philip's absence, the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Thracian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Maedi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a city named </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Alexandropolis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Upon Philip's return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thrace</span>. Campaigning against the Greek city of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Perinthus</span>, Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Amphissa</span> began to work lands that were sacred to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Apollo</span> near <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Delphi</span>, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thermopylae</span>, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Elatea</span>, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Demosthenes</span>, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes' favor, but Athens won the contest.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Amphictyonic League</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">), capturing the mercenaries sent there by </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Demosthenes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chaeronea</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Boeotia</span>. During the ensuing <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of Chaeronea</span>, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">hoplites</span> to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sparta</span>, they were refused, but did not resort to war.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">At </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Corinth</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modeled on the old </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">anti-Persian alliance</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Greco-Persian Wars</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hegemon</span></span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">League of Corinth</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">), and announced his plans to attack the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Persian Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cleopatra Eurydice</span>, the niece of his general <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Attalus</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 1em;">—Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander I of Epirus</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dodona</span>, capital of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Molossians</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">He continued to Illyria,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> where he sought refuge with the Illyrian King and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Demaratus the Corinthian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, who mediated between the two parties.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In the following year, the Persian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">satrap</span> (governor) of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Caria</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pixodarus</span>, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Philip Arrhidaeus</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander reacted by sending an actor, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Thessalus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Harpalus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nearchus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, Ptolemy and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Erigyius</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In 336 BC, while at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aegae</span> attending the wedding of his daughter <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cleopatra</span> to Olympias's brother, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander I of Epirus</span>, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">bodyguards</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pausanias</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Perdiccas</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Leonnatus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Alexander was proclaimed king by the nobles and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">army</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> at the age of 20.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Amyntas IV</span>, executed.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Lyncestis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> killed, but spared a third, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Alexander Lyncestes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="line-height: 19px;"> who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3,000 and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mount Olympus</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mount Ossa</span>, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Peloponnese</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Corinth</span>. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic</span> occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">At Corinth Alexander took the title of </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Hegemon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> ("leader"), and like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Amphipolis</span>, he traveled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mount Haemus</span>, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The Macedonians marched into the country of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Triballi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">(a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">tributary of the Danube</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">). Alexander then marched for three days to the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Danube</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, encountering the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Getae</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">skirmish</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">News then reached Alexander that <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cleitus</span>, King of Illyria, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">King Glaukias</span> of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Taulanti</span> were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Antipater</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> as regent.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander's army crossed the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hellespont</span> in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Thrace</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Paionia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Illyria</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The Battle of Granicus was one of the first battles he fought on his conquest to rule Asia. His naivety could be seen through his actions as he was ‘closest to failure and death’ in this battle. It was here that he was learning how to implement the strategies Aristotle had taught him during childhood. Alexander was a wise leader who could see the flaws in military strategy better than even his own military generals, ‘Alexander…rejected Parmenion’s advice… to capitalize on the Persians’ error in tactical deployment’. Alexander the Great demonstrated extreme hubris in this battle, though he was not experienced, which causes speculation that he, due to his royal nature, believed he was superior to others.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After an initial victory against Persian forces at the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of the Granicus</span>, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sardis</span> and proceeded along the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ionian</span> coast. Though Alexander believed in his divine power to fight with the lives of men he did experience sorry as those who died were rewarded generously. ‘To the relatives of his fallen, Alexander granted immunity from taxation and public service’. Whether it was his own warriors of the Persian forces opposing him, Alexander chose to respect those who died. He even went so far to set up statues to honor and respect these people. Though this did not directly influence the culture of the Persians they did not feel the need to begin a rebellion as their men and rulers were treated with proper respect. At <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Halicarnassus</span>, in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Caria</span>, Alexander successfully waged the first of many<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">sieges</span>, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Memnon of Rhodes</span> and the Persian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">satrap</span> of Caria, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Orontobates</span>, to withdraw by sea.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander left the government of Caria to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ada</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, who adopted Alexander.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lycia</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pamphylian</span> plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Termessos</span>, Alexander humbled but did not storm the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pisidian</span> city.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">At the ancient Phrygian capital of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gordium</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gordian Knot</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a feat said to await the future "king of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Asia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">".</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander journeyed south but was met by Darius’ significantly larger army which he easily defeated, causing Darius to panic. Although he was chased by some troops ‘Alexander treated them (his family) with the respect out of consideration’ which demonstrated his continued generosity and kindness towards those he conquered.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sisygambis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and a fabulous treasure.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> He offered a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">peace treaty</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">talents</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander the Great, although a generous man in victory, eventually recognized the power that he was capable of when he would defeat an enemy in war. Following the siege of Tyre in 332, the enemy he defeated, Darius, attempted to present terms of unconditional surrender but Alexander became ruthless. He realized that he had control and could receive much more. Darius was thus forced to come back, ‘This time the offer was impressive. Darius offered all territory as a far the Euphrates… a colossal ransom of 30,000 talents for his family…invited to marry his eldest daughter’. This new changed in diplomatic relations induced panic among the leaders of the surrounding nations, as they feared a similar defeat. This led to some barbarian cultures choosing to merely abdicate power to Alexander, to avoid certain death.”</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander proceeded to take possession of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Syria</span>, and most of the coast of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Levant</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Tyre</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which he captured after a long and difficult</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">siege</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander massacred the men of military age and sold the women and children into </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">slavery</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated, with the exception of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gaza</span>. The stronghold at Gaza was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. Alexander came upon the city only to be met with a surprising resistance and fortification. When ‘his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible… this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt’ . The divine right that Alexander believed he had gave him confidence of a miracle occurring.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children sold into slavery.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Jerusalem instead opened its gates in surrender, and according to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Josephus</span>, Alexander was shown the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Book of Daniel</span>'s prophecy, presumably chapter 8, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. He spared Jerusalem and pushed south into Egypt.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> He was pronounced the new "master of the Universe" and son of the deity of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Amun</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> at the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Oracle</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Siwa Oasis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Libyan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> desert.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Henceforth, Alexander often referred to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Zeus-Ammon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> as his true father, and subsequent currency depicted him adorned with rams horn as a symbol of his divinity.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> During his stay in Egypt, he founded</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Alexandria-by-Egypt</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which would become the prosperous capital of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ptolemaic Kingdom</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> after his death.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mesopotamia</span> (now northern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iraq</span>) and again defeated Darius, at the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of Gaugamela</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Arbela</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ecbatana</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (modern </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hamedan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">), while Alexander captured </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Babylon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">From Babylon, Alexander went to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Susa</span>, one of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Achaemenid</span> capitals, and captured its legendary treasury.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Persepolis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> via the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Royal Road</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He had to storm the pass of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Persian Gates</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (in the modern </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Zagros Mountains</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) which had been blocked by a Persian army under </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ariobarzanes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Xerxes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Acropolis of Athens</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> during the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Second Persian War</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bessus</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">, his</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bactrian</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">satrap and kinsman. </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">guerrilla</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">campaign against Alexander.</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">Alexander buried Darius' remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kandahar</span> in Afghanistan, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexandria Eschate</span> ("The Furthest") in modern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tajikistan</span>. The campaign took Alexander through <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Media</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Parthia</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aria</span> (West Afghanistan), <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Drangiana</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arachosia</span> (South and Central Afghanistan), <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bactria</span> (North and Central Afghanistan), and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Scythia</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Spitamenes</span>, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy</span>, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Jaxartes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Battle of Jaxartes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The empire began falling as military leaders and eventually Alexander died.</span></i></div>
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<i>The cultural effects of Alexander’s conquests of the Persian Empire was great. Once the Greek ruler was able to control this area, the Greek culture was installed there by keeping some troops and military leaders there. He was so successful at hybridizing the Greek culture with their prior one, they simply could not live without the constant present of the new Greek culture and traditions. ‘Plutarch simply lists Alexander’s principal foundations, and states that they mitigated the primitive savagery of the natives. This does scant justice to the culture of the Achaemenids, and overstates the sophistication of Alexander’s cities…a mass movement by the new colonists back to Greece ‘out of longing for Greek upbringing and culture’. Following the death of Alexander, many people who were conquered felt that the Greek society that they had grown accustomed to was not as strong. Thus many of the people who were in the vast empire Alexander the Great has created throughout his conquests chose to migrate back to the Greek homeland and strengthen their new culture. Although the immediate effects of the campaign were not well documented it can be seen that the impact was substantial and long-lasting.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">During this time, Alexander took the Persian title "King of Kings" (Shahanshah) and adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">proskynesis</span>, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">deities</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Philotas</span>, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Parmenion</span>, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ecbatana</span>, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cleitus the Black</span>, during a violent drunken altercation at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maracanda</span> (modern day <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Samarkand</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkmenistan</span>), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgemental mistakes and most especially, of having forgot the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">pages</span>. His official historian,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Callisthenes</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Olynthus</span>, was implicated in the plot; however, historians have yet to reach consensus regarding this involvement. Callisthenes had fallen out of favor by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antipater</span>, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Agis III</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in battle at </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Megalopolis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> the following year.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's manpower, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After the death of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Spitamenes</span> and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bactrian</span>) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indian subcontinent</span>. He invited the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">chieftains</span> of the former satrapy of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gandhara</span>, in the north of what is now <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pakistan</span>, to come to him and submit to his authority. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Omphis</span>, ruler of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Taxila</span>, whose kingdom extended from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indus</span> to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hydaspes</span>, complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aspasioi</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Assakenoi</span> sections of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kambojas</span> (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kunar</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">valleys</span>, the Guraeans of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Guraeus</span> valley, and the Assakenoi of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Swat</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Buner</span> valleys.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought in the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Aornos</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Curtius</span>, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble".</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Aornos</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">King Porus</span>, who ruled a region in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Punjab</span>, in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of the Hydaspes</span> in 326 BC.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus' territory land that he did not previously own. Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hydaspes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> river, naming one </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bucephala</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, in honor of his horse, who died around this time.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The other was </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nicaea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (Victory) located at the site of modern day </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mong, Punjab</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">East of Porus' kingdom, near the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ganges River</span>, were the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nanda Empire</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Magadha</span> and further east the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gangaridai Empire</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bengal</span>. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hyphasis River</span>, refusing to march farther east. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">men-at-arms</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">war elephants</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Coenus</span> pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indus</span>. Along the way his army conquered the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Malli</span> clans (in modern day <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Multan</span>) and other Indian tribes.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander sent much of his army to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Carmania</span> (modern southern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iran</span>) with general <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Craterus</span>, and commissioned a fleet to explore the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persian Gulf</span> shore under his admiral <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nearchus</span>, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gedrosian Desert</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Makran</span> (now part of southern Iran and Pakistan).</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Discovering that many of his <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">satraps</span> and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Susa</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Opis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet for several thousand of his men at which he and they ate together.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Meanwhile, upon his return, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Cyrus the Great</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After Alexander traveled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure, his closest friend and possible lover, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hephaestion</span>, died of illness or poisoning.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">funeral pyre</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly thereafter.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nebuchadnezzar II</span>, in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Babylon</span>, at age 32.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Details of the death differ slightly –</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Plutarch</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">'s account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nearchus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and spent the night and next day drinking with</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Medius of Larissa</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hercules</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and died after some agony.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Plutarch</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> specifically denied this claim.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">In 2010, however, a new theory proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mavroneri</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) that contained </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">calicheamicin</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a dangerous compound produced by </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">bacteria</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Several <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">natural causes</span> (diseases) have been suggested, including <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">malaria</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">typhoid fever</span>. A 1998 article in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">New England Journal of Medicine</span>attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">bowel perforation</span> and ascending <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">paralysis</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Another recent analysis suggested </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">pyrogenic spondylitis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> or </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">meningitis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">acute pancreatitis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">West Nile virus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasise that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hephaestion</span>'s death may also have contributed to his declining health.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The most likely possible cause is an overdose of medication containing </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">hellebore</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which is deadly in large doses.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">sarcophagus</span> that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">royal prerogative</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy stole it and took it to Memphis.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">His successor, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">late Antiquity</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pompey</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Julius Caesar</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Augustus</span> all visited the tomb in Alexandria. The latter allegedly accidentally knocked the nose off the body. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Caligula</span>was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. In c. AD 200, Emperor <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Septimius Severus</span> closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Caracalla</span>, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The so-called "<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander Sarcophagus</span>", discovered near <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sidon</span> and now in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Istanbul Archaeology Museum</span>, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Abdalonymus</span> (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">battle of Issus</span> in 331.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus' death.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">signet ring</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Perdiccas</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Craterus</span>, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Meleager</span>, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Partition of Babylon</span> became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocks: the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemaic Kingdom</span> of Egypt, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seleucid Empire</span> in the east, the Kingdom of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pergamon</span> in Asia Minor, and Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Diodorus</span> stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Nevertheless, Perdiccas read Alexander's will to his troops.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The testament called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included:</i></div>
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">pyramids of Egypt</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">"</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Erection of great temples in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Delos</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Delphi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Dodona</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Dium</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Amphipolis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and a monumental temple to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Athena</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> at </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Troy</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Conquest of Arabia and the entire Mediterranean Basin</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Circumnavigation of Africa</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Development of cities and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties."</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></li>
</ul>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">This was due to use of terrain, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">phalanx</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Macedonian phalanx</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, armed with the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">sarissa</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">and Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in the manner of a Macedonian king.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persian's <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">scimitars</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">javelins</span>. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius' center, causing the latter to flee once again.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bactria</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sogdiana</span>, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">In India, confronted by Porus' elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Greek biographer <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Plutarch</span> (c. 45–120 AD) describes Alexander's appearance as:</i></div>
<blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;">
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<span style="font-size: small;"><i><sup style="line-height: 1em;">1</sup><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. </span><sup style="line-height: 1em;">2</sup><span style="line-height: 19px;"> For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. </span><sup style="line-height: 1em;">3</sup><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. </span><sup style="line-height: 1em;">4</sup><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Memoirs of Aristoxenus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></span></div>
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<i>Greek historian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arrian</span> (Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' c. 86 – 160) described Alexander as:</i></div>
<blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;">
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">-legendary</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander Romance</span></span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">also suggests that Alexander suffered from</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">heterochromia iridum</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">: that one eye was dark and the other light.</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>British historian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Peter Green</span> provided a description of Alexander's appearance, based on his review of statues and some ancient documents:</i></div>
<blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;">
<div class="Bug6200">
<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Physically, Alexander was not prepossessing. Even by Macedonian standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute Macedonian barons by going clean-shaven. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. His eyes (one blue, one brown) revealed a dewy, feminine quality. He had a high complexion and a harsh voice.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lysippos</span> that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Lysippos</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> had often used the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Contrapposto</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Apoxyomenos</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hermes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Eros</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Lysippos' sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Some of Alexander's strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Olympias' influence instilled a sense of destiny in him,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and Plutarch tells us that his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">However, his father Philip was Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander's relationship with his father forged the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to out-do his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">According to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">self control</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> with alcohol.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. </span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> However, he had little interest in sports or the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Olympic games</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (unlike his father), seeking only the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Homeric</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> ideals of honor (</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">timê</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) and glory (</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">kudos</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">).</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">He had great </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">charisma</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death – only Alexander had the ability to do so.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">megalomania</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">paranoia</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">His </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">delusions of grandeur</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> are readily visible in his </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">testament</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and in his desire to conquer the world.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Siwa</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">proskynesis</span></span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a practice that Macedonians disapproved, and were loath to perform.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">This behavior cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Thus, rather than megalomania, his behavior may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The central personal relationship of Alexander's life was with his friend, general, and bodyguard <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hephaestion</span>, the son of a Macedonian noble.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">ephaestion's death devastated Alexander.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">mental state</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> during his final months.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander married twice: <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Roxana</span>, daughter of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bactrian</span> nobleman <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Oxyartes</span>, out of love;</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Stateira II</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a Persian princess and daughter of</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Darius III</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of Persia, for political reasons.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon of Roxana and, possibly, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Heracles of Macedon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">from his mistress Barsine. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> No ancient sources stated that Alexander had </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">homosexual</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">relationships, or that Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander's visit to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Troy</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles and Hephaestion that of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Patroclus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the latter riddling that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles".</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Noting that the word </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">eromenos</span></span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (ancient Greek for beloved) does not necessarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may have been bisexual, which in his time was not controversial.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">However, he was relatively young when he died, and Ogden suggests that Alexander's matrimonial record is more impressive than his father's at the same age.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Apart from wives, Alexander had many more female companions. Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly;</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body".</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ada of Caria</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, who adopted him, and even Darius's mother </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sisygambis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km</span><sup style="line-height: 1em;">2</sup><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (2,000,000 sq mi),</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">successor states</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hellenistic period</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history. Taking advantage of this,</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Chandragupta Maurya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Punjab</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nanda Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">twenty cities that bore his name</span>, most of them east of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tigris</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The first, and greatest, was </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Alexandria</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The cities locations' reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Hellenization was coined by the German historian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Johann Gustav Droysen</span> to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Alexandria</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Antioch</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Seleucia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (south of modern </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Baghdad</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">).</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Persian culture</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the Successor states.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The core of Hellenistic culture was essentially <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Athenian</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Attic</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">-based "</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">koine</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">", or "common" Greek dialect.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">lingua franca</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">modern Greek</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Furthermore, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">town planning</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Some of the most unusual effects of Hellenization can be seen in India, in the region of the relatively late-arising <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indo-Greek kingdoms</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">There, isolated from Europe, Greek culture apparently hybridized with Indian, and especially </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Buddhist</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, influences. The first realistic portrayals of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Buddha</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> appeared at this time; they were modeled on Greek statues of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Apollo</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">ancient Greek religion</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">: the concept of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Boddhisatvas</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and some </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mahayana</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">ceremonial practices</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (burning </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">incense</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks. </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Zen Buddhism</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> draws in part on the ideas of Greek </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">stoics</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, such as </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Zeno</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> One Greek king, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Menander I</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Buddhist literature</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> as 'Milinda'.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The process of Hellenization extended to the sciences, where ideas from </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Greek astronomy</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> filtered eastward and had profoundly influenced </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Indian astronomy</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> by the early centuries AD.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Greco-Bactrian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> city of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ai Khanoum</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in modern-day</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Afghanistan</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">while the Greek concept of a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">spherical earth</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> surrounded by the spheres of planets was adopted in India and eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a flat and circular earth.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Yavanajataka</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Paulisa Siddhanta</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> texts in particular show Greek influence.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Polybius</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">began his </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Histories</span></span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pompey the Great</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anatole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Julius Caesar</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> dedicated a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Lysippean</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">equestrian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">bronze</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Octavian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">sphinx</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to Alexander's profile.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The emperor </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Trajan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> also admired Alexander, as did </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nero</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Caracalla</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Macrinus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or embroidered into their clothes.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">autocratic</span> tendencies can be kept in check by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">republican</span> values.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">amicita</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (friendship) and </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">clementia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (clemency), but also </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">iracundia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (anger) and </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">cupiditas gloriae</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (over-desire for glory).</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Cilicia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Onesicritus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, invented a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">tryst</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> between Alexander and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Thalestris</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, queen of the mythical </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Amazons</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Lysimachus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander Romance</span>, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Middle Ages</span>,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> containing many dubious stories,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and was translated into numerous languages.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Karagiozis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> shadow play.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">mermaid</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?". The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!", causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gorgon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In pre-Islamic <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persian</span> (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Zoroastrian</span>) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet "gojastak", meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In Islamic Iran, under the influence of the Alexander Romance, a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Firdausi's</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Shahnameh</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Iranian </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">shahs</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">fountain of youth</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Socrates</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Plato</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and Aristotle, in search of immortality.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Syriac</span> version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God".</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nectanebo II</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the last </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">pharaoh</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> before the Persian conquest.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The figure of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dhul-Qarnayn</span> (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Quran</span> is believed by some scholars to represent Alexander, due to parallels with the Alexander Romance.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gog and Magog</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> He then traveled the known world in search for the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In India and Pakistan, more specifically the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Punjab</span>, the name "Sikandar", derived from Persian, denotes a rising young talent.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">medieval Europe</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> he was made a member of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nine Worthies</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a group of heroes who encapsulated all the ideal qualities of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">chivalry</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nearchus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">; </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Aristobulus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">original sources</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> have survived. The earliest of these is </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Diodorus Siculus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Justin</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, whose work dated as late as the 4th century.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-81143744100648946402013-01-27T02:34:00.001-08:002013-01-27T02:54:52.820-08:00Seleucus I Nicator<br />
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<i><b>Seleucus I</b> (given the surname by later generations of <b>Nicator</b>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ancient Greek</span>: Nikátōr, "Seleucus the Victor") (<span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">ca. 358 BC – 281 BC</span>) was a leading officer of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander the Great</span>'s <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">League of Corinth</span> and one of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Diadochi</span>. In the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Wars of the Diadochi</span> that took place after Alexander's death, Seleucus established the Seleucid dynasty and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seleucid Empire</span>. His kingdom would be one of the last holdouts of Alexander's former empire to Roman rule. They were only outlived by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemaic Kingdom</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Egypt</span> by roughly 34 years.</i></div>
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<i>After the death of Alexander, Seleucus was nominated as the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">satrap</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Babylon</span> in 320 BC. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antigonus</span> forced Seleucus to flee from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Babylon</span>, but, supported by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy</span>, he was able to return in 312 BC. Seleucus' later conquests include <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persia</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Media</span>. He was defeated by the emperor of<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">India</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chandragupta Maurya</span> and accepted a matrimony alliance for 500 elephants after ceding the territories considered as part of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">India</span>. Seleucus defeated Antigonus in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">battle of Ipsus</span> in 301 BC and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lysimachus</span> in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">battle of Corupedium</span> in 281 BC. He was assassinated by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy Ceraunus</span> during the same year. His successor was his son <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antiochus I</span>.</i></div>
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<i>Seleucus founded a number of new cities, including <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antioch</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seleucia</span>, now part of present-day <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkey</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iraq</span>, respectively.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus was the son of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antiochus</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Historian </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Junianus Justinus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> claims he was one of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Philip II of Macedon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">'s generals. Antiochus is not, however, mentioned in any other sources and nothing is known of his supposed career under Philip. It is possible that Antiochus was a member of an upper Macedonian noble family. Seleucus' mother was supposedly called </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Laodice</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, but nothing else is known of her. Later, Seleucus named a number of cities after his parents.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">As a teenager, Seleucus was chosen to serve as the king's <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">page</span> (paides). It was customary for all male offspring of noble families to first serve in this position and later as officers in the king's army. </span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus' year of birth is unclear. Justin claims he was 77 years old during the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">battle of Corupedium</span>, which would place his year of birth at 358 BC. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Appianus</span> tells us Seleucus was 73 years old during the battle, which means 354 BC would be the year of birth. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eusebius of Caesarea</span>, however, mentions the age of 75, and thus the year 356 BC, making Seleucus the same age as<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander the Great</span>. This is most likely propaganda on Seleucus' part to make him seem comparable to Alexander.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus was born in Europos, located in the northern part of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Macedonia</span>. Just a year before his birth (if the year 358 BC is accepted as the most likely date), the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Paeonians</span> invaded the region. Philip defeated the invaders and only a few years later utterly subdued them under Macedonian rule.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">A number of legends, similar to those told of Alexander the Great, were told of Seleucus. It was said Antiochus told his son before he left to battle the Persians with Alexander that his real father was actually the god <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Apollo</span>. The god had left a ring with a picture of an <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">anchor</span> as a gift to Laodice. Seleucus had a birthmark shaped like an anchor. It was told that Seleucus' sons and grandsons also had similar birthmarks. The story is similar to the one told about Alexander. Most likely the story is merely propaganda by Seleucus, who presumably invented the story to present himself as the natural successor of Alexander.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">John Malalas</span> tells us Seleucus had a sister called <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Didymeia</span>, who had sons called Nicanor and Nicomedes. It is most likely the sons are fictitious. Didymeia might refer to the oracle of Apollo in<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Didyma</span> near <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Miletus</span>. It has also been suggested that <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy (son of Seleucus)</span> was actually the uncle of Seleucus.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In spring 334 BC, as a young man of about twenty-three, Seleucus accompanied Alexander into Asia. By the time of the Indian campaigns beginning in late in 327 BC, he had risen to the command of the élite infantry corps in the Macedonian army, the "Shield-bearers" (Hypaspistai), later known as the "<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Silvershields</span>". It is said that when Alexander crossed the Hydaspes river on a boat, he was accompanied by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Perdiccas</span>,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy I Soter</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lysimachus</span> and also Seleucus. During the subsequent <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of the Hydaspes River</span>, Seleucus led his troops against the elephants of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">King Porus</span>. It is likely that Seleucus had no role in the actual planning of the battle. He is also not mentioned as holding any major independent position during the battle, unlike, for example, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Craterus</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hephaistion</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Peithon</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Leonnatus</span> – each of whom had sizable detachments under his control.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus' Royal </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Hypaspistai</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> were constantly under Alexander's eye and at his disposal. They later participated in the Indus valley campaign, in the battles fought against the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Malli</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and in the crossing of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gedrosian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> desert.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus also took his future wife, the Persian princess <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Apama</span> (daughter of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Spitamenes</span>), with him into India as his mistress, where she gave birth to his bastard</span><span style="line-height: 10px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">eldest son and successor </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Antiochus I Soter</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (325 BC). At the great marriage ceremony at </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Susa</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in the spring of 324 BC, Seleucus formally married </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Apama</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and she later bore him at least two legitimate daughters, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Laodice</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, Apama and a son </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Achaeus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. At the same event, Alexander married the daughter of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Darius III</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> while several other Macedonians married Persian women. After Alexander's death, when the other senior Macedonian officers unloaded their "Susa wives" </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">en masse</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, Seleucus was one of the very few who kept his, and Apama remained his consort and later Queen for the rest of her life.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus is mentioned three times in ancient sources before the death of Alexander. He participated in a sailing trip near <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Babylon</span>, took part in the dinner party of Medeios the Thessalian with Alexander and visited the temple of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sarapis</span>. In the first of these episodes, Alexander's <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">diadem</span> was blown off his head and landed on some reeds near the tombs of Assyrian kings. Seleucus swam to fetch the diadem back, placing it on his own head while returning to the boat to keep it dry. The validity of the story is dubious. The story of the dinner party of Medeios may be true, but the plot to poison the King is unlikely.</span><span style="line-height: 10px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">In the final story, Seleucus reportedly slept in the temple of Sarapis in the hope that Alexander's health might improve. The validity of this story is also questionable.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Alexander the Great died without a successor in Babylon on June 10, 323 BC. His general <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Perdiccas</span> became the regent of all of Alexander's empire, while Alexander's physically and mentally disabled half-brother <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arrhidaeus</span> was chosen as the next king under the name <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Philip III of Macedon</span>. Alexander's unborn child (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander IV</span>) was also named his father's successor. In the "<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Partition of Babylon</span>" however, Perdiccas effectively divided the enormous Macedonian dominion among Alexander's generals. Seleucus was chosen to command the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Companion cavalry</span>(hetaroi) and appointed first or court <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">chiliarch</span>, which made him the senior officer in the Royal Army after the regent and commander-in-chief Perdiccas. Several other powerful men supported Perdiccas, including <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lysimachus</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Peithon</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eumenes</span>. Perdiccas' power depended on his ability to hold Alexander's enormous empire together, and on whether he could force the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">satraps</span> to obey him.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">War soon broke out between Perdiccas and the other <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Diadochi</span>. To cement his position, Perdiccas tried to marry Alexander's sister <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cleopatra</span>. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">First War of the Diadochi</span> began when Perdiccas sent Alexander's corpse to Macedonia for burial. Ptolemy however captured the body and took it to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexandria</span>. Perdiccas and his troops followed him to Egypt, whereupon Ptolemy conspired with the satrap of Media, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Peithon</span>, and the commander of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Argyraspides</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antigenes</span>, both serving as officers under Perdiccas, and assassinated him. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cornelius Nepos</span> mentions that Seleucus also took part in this conspiracy, but this is not certain.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The most powerful man in the empire after the death of Perdiccas was <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antipater</span>. Perdiccas' opponents gathered in Triparadisos, where the empire of Alexander was partitioned again (the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Treaty of Triparadisus</span> 321 BC).</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">At Triparadisos the soldiers had become mutinous and were planning to murder their master Antipater. Seleucus and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antigonus</span>, however, managed to prevent this.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">For betraying Perdiccas, Seleucus was awarded the rich province of Babylon. This decision may have been Antigonus' idea. Seleucus' Babylon was surrounded by </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Peucestas</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the satrap of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Persis</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">;</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Antigenes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the new satrap of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Susiana</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and Peithon of Media. Babylon was one of the wealthiest provinces of the empire, but its military power was insignificant. It is possible that Antipater divided the eastern provinces so that no single satrap could rise above the others in power.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>After the death of Alexander, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Archon of Pella</span> was chosen satrap of Babylon. Perdiccas, however, had had plans to supersede Archon and nominate <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Docimus</span> as his successor. During his invasion of Egypt, Perdiccas sent Docimus along with his detachments to Babylon. Archon waged war against him, but fell in battle. Thus, Docimus was not intending to give Babylon to Seleucus without a fight. It is not certain how Seleucus took Babylon from Docimus, but according to one Babylonian chronicle an important building was destroyed in the city during the summer or winter of 320 BC. Other Babylonian sources state that Seleucus arrived in Babylon in October or November 320 BC. Despite the presumed battle, Docimus was able to escape.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Meanwhile, the empire was once again in turmoil. Peithon, the satrap of Media, assassinated Philip, the satrap of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Parthia</span>, and replaced him with his brother <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eudemus</span> as the new satrap. In the west <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antigonus</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eumenes</span> waged war against each other. Just like Peithon and Seleucus, Eumenes was one of the former supporters of Perdiccas. Seleucus' biggest problem was, however, Babylon itself. The locals had rebelled against Archon and supported Docimus. The Babylonian priesthood had great influence over the region. Babylon also had a sizable population of Macedonian and Greek veterans of Alexander's army. Seleucus managed to win over the priests with monetary gifts and bribes.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After the death of Antipater in 319 BC, the satrap of Media began to expand his power. Peithon assembled a large army of perhaps over 20,000 soldiers. Under the leadership of Peucestas the other satraps of the region brought together an opposing army of their own. Peithon was finally defeated in a battle waged in Parthia. He escaped to Media, but his opponents did not follow him and rather returned to Susiana. Meanwhile Eumenes and his army had arrived at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cilicia</span>, but had to retreat when Antigonus reached the city. The situation was difficult for Seleucus. Eumenes and his army were north of Babylon; Antigonus was following him with an even larger army; Peithon was in Media and his opponents in Susiana. Antigenes, satrap of Susiana and commander of the Argyraspides, was allied with Eumenes. Antigenes was in Cilicia when the war between him and Peithon began.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Peithon arrived at Babylon in the autumn or winter of 317 BC. Peithon had lost a large number of troops, but Seleucus had even fewer soldiers. Eumenes decided to march to Susa in the spring of 316 BC. The satraps in Susa had apparently accepted Eumenes' claims of his fighting on behalf of the lawful ruling family against the usurper Antigonus. Eumenes marched his army 300<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">stadions</span> away from Babylon and tried to cross the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tigris</span>. Seleucus had to act. He sent two <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">triremes</span> and some smaller ships to stop the crossing. He also tried to get the former hypasiti of the Argyraspides to join him, but this did not happen. Seleucus also sent messages to Antigonus. Because of his lack of troops, Seleucus apparently had no plans to actually stop Eumenes. He opened the flood barriers of the river, but the resulting flood did not stop Eumenes.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In the spring of 316 BC, Seleucus and Peithon joined Antigonus, who was following Eumenes to Susa. From Susa Antigonus went to Media, from where he could threaten the eastern provinces. He left Seleucus with a small number of troops to prevent Eumenes from reaching the Mediterranean. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sibyrtius</span>, satrap of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arachosia</span>, saw the situation as hopeless and returned to his own province. The armies of Eumenes and his allies were at breaking point. Antigonus and Eumenes had two encounters during 316 BC, in the battles of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Paraitacene</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gabiene</span>. Eumenes was defeated and executed. The events of the Second War of the Diadochi revealed Seleucus' ability to wait for the right moment. Blazing into battle was not his style.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Antigonus spent the winter of 316 BC in Media, whose ruler was once again Peithon. Peithon's lust for power had grown, and he tried to get a portion of Antigonus troops to revolt to his side. Antigonus, however, discovered the plot and executed Peithon. He then superseded Peucestas as satrap of Persia.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In the summer of 315 BC Antigonus arrived in Babylon and was warmly welcomed by Seleucus. The relationship between the two soon turned cold, however. Seleucus punished one of Antigonus' officers without asking permission from Antigonus. Antigonus became angry and demanded that Seleucus give him the income from the province, which Seleucus refused to do.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">He was, however, afraid of Antigonus and fled to Egypt with 50 horsemen. It is told that </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Chaldean</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> astrologers prophesied to Antigonus that Seleucus would become master of Asia and would kill Antigonus. After hearing this, Antigonus sent soldiers after Seleucus, who had however first escaped to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mesopotamia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and then to Syria. Antigonus executed Blitor, the new satrap of Mesopotamia, for helping Seleucus. Modern scholars are skeptical of the prophecy story. It seems certain, however, that the Babylon priesthood was against Seleucus.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">During Seleucus' escape to Egypt, Macedonia was undergoing great turmoil. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cassander</span> murdered king Philip III, his wife <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eurydice</span> and Alexander the Great's mother <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Olympias</span>. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander IV</span>, still a young child, became the new king and was under the control of Cassander.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After arriving in Egypt, Seleucus sent his friends to Greece to inform Cassander and Lysimachus, the ruler of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thracia</span>, about Antigonus. Antigonus was now the most powerful of the Diadochi, and the others would soon ally against him. The allies sent a proposition to Antigonus in which they demanded that Seleucus be allowed to return to Babylon. Antigonus refused and went to Syria, where he planned to attack Ptolemy in the spring of 314 BC.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus was an admiral under Ptolemy. At the same time he started the siege of</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Tyros</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Antigonus allied with </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Rhodes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. The island had a strategic location and its navy was capable of preventing the allies from combining their forces. Because of the threat of Rhodes, Ptolemy gave Seleucus a hundred ships and sent him to the Aegean Sea. The fleet was too small to defeat Rhodes, but it was big enough to force </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Asander</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the satrap of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Caria</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, to ally with Ptolemy. To demonstrate his power, Seleucus also invaded the city of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Erythrai</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Ptolemy, nephew of Antigonus, attacked Asander. Seleucus returned to Cyprus, where Ptolemy I had sent his brother </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Menelaos</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> along with 10,000 mercenaries and 100 ships. Seleucus and Menelaos began to besiege Kition. Antigonus sent most of his fleet to the Aegean Sea and his army to Asia Minor. Ptolemy now had an opportunity to invade Syria, where he defeated </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Demetrius</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the son Antigonus, in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">battle of Gaza</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in 312 BC. It is probable that Seleucus took part in the battle. </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Peithon, son of Agenor</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, whom Antigonus had nominated as the new satrap of Babylon, fell in the battle. The death of Peithon gave Seleucus an opportunity to return to Babylon.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus had prepared his return to Babylon well. After the battle of Gaza Demetrius retreated to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tripoli</span> while Ptolemy advanced all the way to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sidon</span>. Ptolemy gave Seleucus 800 infantry and 200 cavalry. He also had his friends accompanying him, perhaps the same 50 who escaped with him from Babylon. On the way to Babylon Seleucus recruited more soldiers from the colonies along the route. He finally had about 3,000 soldiers. In Babylon, Pethon's commander, Diphilus, barricaded himself in the city's fortress. Seleucus conquered Babylon with great speed and the fortress was also quickly captured. Seleucus' friends who had stayed in Babylon were released from captivity.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> His return to Babylon was afterwards officially regarded as the beginning of the</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Seleucid Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and that year as the first of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Seleucid era</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Soon after Seleucus' return, the supporters of Antigonus tried to get Babylon back. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nicanor</span> was the new satrap of Media and thestrategos of the eastern provinces. His army had about 17,000 soldiers. Evagoras, the satrap of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aria</span>, was allied with him. It was obvious that Seleucus' small force could not defeat the two in battle. Seleucus hid his armies in the marshes that surrounded the area where Nicanor was planning to cross the Tigris and made a surprise attack during the night. Evagoras fell in the beginning of the battle and Nicanor was cut off from his forces. The news about the death of Evagoras spread among the soldiers, who started to surrender en masse. Almost all of them agreed to fight under Seleucus. Nicanor managed to escape with only a few men.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Even though Seleucus now had about 20,000 soldiers, they were not enough to withstand the forces of Antigonus. He also did not know when Antigonus would begin his counterattack. On the other hand, he knew that at least two eastern provinces did not have a satrap. A great majority of his own troops were from these provinces. Some of Evagoras' troops were Persian. Perhaps a portion of the troops were Eumenes' soldiers, who had a reason to hate Antigonus. Seleucus decided to take advantage of this situation.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus spread different stories among the provinces and the soldiers. According to one of them, he had in a dream seen Alexander standing beside him. Eumenes had tried to use a similar propaganda trick. Antigonus, who had been in Asia Minor while Seleucus had been in the east with Alexander, could not use Alexander in his own propaganda. Seleucus, being Macedonian, had the ability to gain the trust of the Macedonians among his troops, which was not the case with Eumenes.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After becoming once again satrap of Babylon, Seleucus became much more aggressive in his politics. In a short time he conquered Media and Susiana. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Diodorus Siculus</span> reports that Seleucus also conquered other nearby areas, which might refer to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persis</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aria</span> or <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Parthia</span>. Seleucus did not reach <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bactria</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sogdiana</span>. The satrap of the former was <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Stasanor</span>, who had managed to remain neutral during the conflicts. After the defeat of Nikanor's army, there was no force in the east that could have opposed Seleucus. It is uncertain how Seleucus arranged the administration of the provinces he had conquered. Most satraps had died. In theory, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Polyperchon</span> was still the lawful predecessor of Antipater and the official regent of the Macedonian kingdom. It was his duty to select the satraps. However, Polyperchon was still allied with Antipater and thus an enemy of Seleucus.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Antigonus sent his son Demetrius along with 15,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry to reconquer Babylon. Apparently, he gave Demetrius a time limit, after which he had to return to Syria. Antigonus believed Seleucus was still ruling only Babylon. Perhaps Nicanor had not told him that Selucus now had at least 20,000 soldiers. It seems that the scale of Nicanor's defeat was not clear to all parties. Antigonus did not know Seleucus had conquered the majority of the eastern provinces and perhaps cared little about the eastern parts of the empire.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>When Demetrius arrived in Babylon, Seleucus was somewhere in the east. He had left <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Patrocles</span> to defend the city. Babylon was defended in an unusual way. It had two strong fortresses, in which Seleucus had left his garrisons. The inhabitants of the city were transferred out and settled in the neighboring areas, some as far as Susa. The surroundings of Babylon were excellent for defense, with cities, swamps, canals and rivers. Demetrius' troops started to besiege the fortresses of Babylon and managed to conquer one of them. The second fortress proved more difficult for Demetrius. He left his friend Archelaus to continue the siege, and himself returned west leaving 5,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry in Babylon. Ancient sources do not mention what happened to these troops. Perhaps Seleucus had to reconquer Babylon from Archelaus.</i></div>
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<i>Over the course of nine years (311–302 BC), while Antigonus was occupied in the west, Seleucus brought the whole eastern part of Alexander's empire as far as the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Jaxartes</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indus Rivers</span> under his authority.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In 311 BC Antigonus made peace with Cassander, Lysimachus and Ptolemy, which gave him an opportunity to deal with Seleucus.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Antigonus' army had at least 80,000 soldiers. Even if he left half of his troops in the west, he would still have a numerical advantage over Seleucus. Seleucus may have received help from Cossaians, whose ancestors were the ancient </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kassites</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Antigonus had devastated their lands while fighting Eumenes. Seleucus perhaps recruited a portion of Archelaus' troops. When Antigonus finally invaded Babylon, Seleucus' army was much bigger than before. Many of his soldiers certainly hated Antigonus. The population of Babylon was also hostile. Seleucus, thus, did not need to garrison the area to keep the locals from revolting.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Little information is available about the conflict between Antigonus and Seleucus; only a very rudimentary Babylonian chronicle detailing the events of the war remains. The description of the year 310 BC has completely disappeared. It seems that Antigonus managed to conquer Babylon. His plans were disturbed, however, by Ptolemy, who made a surprise attack in Cilicia.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">We do know that Seleucus managed to defeat Antigonus in at least one decisive battle. This battle is only mentioned in Stratagems in War by<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Polyaenus</span>. Polyaenus reports that the troops of Seleucus and Antigonus fought for a whole day, but when night came the battle was still undecided. The two forces agreed to rest for the night and continue in the morning. Antigonus' troops slept without their equipment. Seleucus ordered his forces to sleep and eat breakfast in battle formation. Shortly before dawn, Seleucus' troops attacked the forces of Antigonus, who were still without their weapons and in disarray and thus easily defeated. The historical accuracy of the story is questionable.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The Babylonian war finally ended in Seleucus' victory. Antigonus was forced to retreat west. Both sides fortified their borders. Antigonus built a series of fortresses along the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Balikh River</span> while Seleucus built a few cities, including <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dura-Europos</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nisibis</span>.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The next event connected to Seleucus was the founding of the city of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seleucia</span>. The city was built on the shore of the Tigris probably in 307 or 305 BC. Seleucus made Seleucia his new capital, thus imitating Lysimachus, Cassander and Antigonus, all of whom had named cities after themselves. Seleucus also transferred the mint of Babylon to his new city. Babylon was soon left in the shadow of Seleucia, and the story goes that <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antiochus</span>, the son of Seleucus, moved the whole population of Babylon to his father's namesake capital in 275 BC. The city flourished until AD 165, when the Romans destroyed it.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">A story of the founding of the city goes as follows: Seleucus asked the Babylonian priests which day would be best to found the city. The priest calculated the day, but, wanting the founding to fail, told Seleucus a different date. Their plot failed however, because when the correct day came, Seleucus' soldiers spontaneously started to build the city. When questioned, the priests admitted their deed.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The struggle between the Diadochi reached its climax when Antigonus, after the extinction of the old royal line of Macedonia, proclaimed himself king in 306 BC. Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander and Seleucus soon followed. Also, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Agathocles</span> of Sicily declared himself king around the same time.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Seleucus, like the other four principal Macedonian chiefs, assumed the title and style of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">basileus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (king).</span></i></div>
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<i>Seleucus soon turned his attention once again eastward. In the year 305 BC, Seleucus I Nicator went to India and apparently occupied territory as far as the Indus, and eventually <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">waged war</span> with the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maurya</span> Emperor <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chandragupta Maurya</span>:</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 1.5em;">Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus. He crossed the Indus and waged war with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sandrocottus</span>, king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. – <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Appian</span>, History of Rome, The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Syrian Wars</span> 55</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Only a few sources mention his activities in India. Chandragupta (known in Greek sources as Sandrökottos), founder of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mauryan empire</span>, had conquered the Indus valley and several other parts of the easternmost regions of Alexander's empire. Seleucus began a campaign against Chandragupta and crossed the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indus</span>. Seleucus' Indian campaign was, however, a failure. It is unknown what exactly happened. Perhaps Chandragupta defeated Seleucus in battle. No sources mention this, however. But as most historians note, Seleucus appears to have fared poorly as he did not achieve his aims. The two leaders ultimately reached an agreement, and through a treaty sealed in 305 BC,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus ceded a considerable amount of territory to Chandragupta in exchange for 500 war elephants, which were to play a key role in the forthcoming battles, particularly at Ipsus. According to Strabo, the ceded territories bordered the Indus:</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 1.5em;">The geographical position of the tribes is as follows: along the Indus are the Paropamisadae, above whom lies the Paropamisus mountain: then, towards the south, the Arachoti: then next, towards the south, the Gedroseni, with the other tribes that occupy the seaboard; and the Indus lies, latitudinally, alongside all these places; and of these places, in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they formerly belonged to the Persians. Alexander [III 'the Great' of Macedon] took these away from the Arians and established settlements of his own, but <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seleucus Nicator</span> gave them to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sandrocottus</span> [Chandragupta], upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange five hundred elephants. — Strabo 15.2.9</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>From this, it seems that Seleucus surrendered the easternmost provinces of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arachosia</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gedrosia</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Paropamisadae</span> and perhaps also <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aria</span>. On the other hand, he was accepted by other satraps of the eastern provinces. His Persian wife, Apama, may have helped him implement his rule in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bactria</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sogdiana</span>. Some modern scholarship suggests that Seleucus gave away more territory in what is now southern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Afghanistan</span>, and parts of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persia</span> west of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indus</span>. This would tend to be corroborated archaeologically, as concrete indications of Mauryan influence, such as the inscriptions of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Edicts of Ashoka</span> which are known to be located in, for example, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kandhahar</span> in today's southern Afghanistan. However, Asoka's Edicts were inscribed two generations after any territorial handover by Seleucus and, for this reason, it is equally possible that the land in which these Edicts are to be found was incorporated into the Mauryan empire by Bindusara, Chandragupta's son and successor, or Asoka himself.</i></div>
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<i>Some authors claim that the argument relating to Seleucus handing over more of what is now southern Afghanistan is an exaggeration originating in a statement by Pliny the Elder referring not specifically to the lands received by Chandragupta, but rather to the various opinions of geographers regarding the definition of the word "India":</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 1.5em;">Most geographers, in fact, do not look upon India as bounded by the river Indus, but add to it the four satrapies of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gedrose</span>, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arachotë</span>, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aria</span>, and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Paropamisadë</span>, the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">River Cophes</span> thus forming the extreme boundary of India. According to other writers, however, all these territories, are reckoned as belonging to the country of the Aria. — Pliny, Natural History VI, 23</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Also the passage of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arrian</span> explaining that <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Megasthenes</span> lived in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arachosia</span> with the satrap <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sibyrtius</span>, from where he traveled to India to visit Chandragupta, goes against the notion that Arachosia was under Maurya rule:</i></div>
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<i>Megasthenes lived with Sibyrtius, satrap of Arachosia, and speaks of his often visiting <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sandracottus</span>, the king of the Indians. — <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arrian</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anabasis Alexandri</span> v,6</i></div>
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<i>Nevertheless, it is usually considered today that Arachosia and the other three regions did become dominions of the Mauryan Empire.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The alliance between Chandragupta and Seleucus was probably affirmed with a marriage (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Epigamia</span>). Chandragupta or his son married the daughter of Seleucus, Cornelia, or perhaps there was diplomatic recognition of intermarriage between Indians and Greeks. In addition to this matrimonial recognition or alliance, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Megasthenes</span>, to the Mauryan court at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pataliputra</span> (Modern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Patna</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bihar state</span>). Only short extracts remain of Megasthenes' description of the journey.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The two rulers seem to have been on very good terms, as classical sources have recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta sent various presents such as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">aphrodisiacs</span> to Seleucus.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Seleucus obtained knowledge of most of northern India, as explained by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pliny the Elder</span> through his numerous embassies to the Mauryan Empire:</i></div>
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<i>The other parts of the country [beyond the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hydaspes</span>, the farthest extent of Alexander's conquests] were discovered and surveyed by Seleucus Nicator: namely</i></div>
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<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>from thence (the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hydaspes</span>) to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hesudrus</span> 168 miles</i></li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>to the river <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ioames</span> (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yamuna</span>) as much: and some copies add 5 miles more therto</i></li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>from thence to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ganges</span> 112 miles</i></li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Rhodapha</span> 119, and some say, that between them two it is no less than 325 miles.</i></li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>From it to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Calinipaxa</span>, a great town 167 miles-and-a-half, others say 265.</i></li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>And to the confluent of the rivers <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iomanes</span> and Ganges, where both meet together, 225 miles, and many put thereto 13 miles more</i></li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>from thence to the town <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Palibotta</span> 425 miles</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="line-height: 1.5em;">and so to the mouth of the Ganges where he falleth into the sea 638 miles. — Pliny the Elder, Natural history, Book 6, Chap 21</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></li>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus apparently minted coins during his stay in India, as several coins in his name are in the Indian standard and have been excavated in India. These coins describe him as "Basileus" ("King"), which implies a date later than 306 BC. Some of them also mention Seleucus in association with his son Antiochus as king, which would also imply a date as late as 293 BC. No Seleucid coins were struck in India thereafter and confirm the reversal of territory west of the Indus to Chandragupta.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus may have founded a navy in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persian Gulf</span> and in the Indian Ocean.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The war elephants Seleucus received from Chandragupta proved to be useful when the Diadochi finally decided to deal with Antigonus. Cassander, Seleucus and Lysimachus defeated Antigonus and Demetrius in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">battle of Ipsus</span>. Antigonus fell in battle, but Demetrius managed to escape. After the battle, Syria was placed under Seleucus' rule. He understood Syria to encompass the region from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Taurus mountains</span> to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sinai</span>, but Ptolemy had already conquered <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Palestine</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Phonicia</span>. In 299 BC Seleucus allied with Demetrius and married his daughter <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Stratonice</span>. Stratonice was also the daughter of Antipater's daughter <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Phila</span>. Seleucus had a daughter by Stratonice, who was also called <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Phila</span>.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The fleet of Demetrius managed to destroy Ptolemy's fleet and thus Seleucus did not need to fight him.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 13px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span></span></i></div>
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<i>Seleucus, however, did not manage to enlarge his kingdom to the west. The main reason was that he did not have enough Greek and Macedonian troops. During the battle of Ipsus, he had less infantry than Lysimachus. His strength was in his war elephants and in traditional Persian cavalry. In order to enlarge his army, Seleucus tried to attract colonists from mainland Greece by founding four new cities—<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seleucia Pieria</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Laodicea in Syria</span> on the coast and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antioch on the Orontes</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Apameia</span> in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Orontes River</span> valley. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antioch</span> became his chief seat of government. The new Seleuceia was supposed to become his new naval base and a gateway to the Mediterranean. Seleucus also founded six smaller cities.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">It is said of Seleucus that "few princes have ever lived with so great a passion for the building of cities. He is reputed to have built in all nine Seleucias, sixteen Antiochs, and six Laodiceas".</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Seleucus nominated his son <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antiochus I</span> as his co-ruler and viceroy of the eastern provinces in 292 BC, the vast extent of the empire seeming to require a double government. In 294 BC Stratonice married her stepson <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antiochus</span>. Seleucus reportedly instigated the marriage after discovering that his son was in danger of dying of lovesickness.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Seleucus was thus able to remove Stratonice out of the way, as her father Demetrius had now become king of Macedonia.</span></i></div>
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<i>The alliance between Seleucus and Demetrius ended in 294 BC when Seleucus conquered <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cilicia</span>. Demetrius invaded and easily conquered Cilicia in 286 BC, which meant that Demetrius was now threatening the most important regions of Seleucus' empire in Syria. Demetrius' troops, however, were tired and had not received their payment. Seleucus, on the other hand, was known as a cunning and rich leader who had earned the adoration of his soldiers. Seleucus blocked the roads leading south from Cilicia and urged Demetrius' troops to join his side. Simultaneously he tried to evade battle with Demetrius. Finally, Seleucus addressed Demetrius personally. He showed himself in front of the soldiers and removed his helmet, revealing his identity. Demetrius' troops now started to abandon their leader en massse. Demetrius was finally imprisoned in Apameia and died a few years later in captivity.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Lysimachus and Ptolemy had supported Seleucus against Demetrius, but after the latter's defeat the alliance started to break apart. Lysimachus ruled Macedonia, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thracia</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Asia Minor</span>. He also had problems with his family. Lysimachus executed his son <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Agathocles</span>, whose wife <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lysandra</span> escaped to Babylon to Seleucus.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The unpopularity of Lysimachus after the murder of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Agathocles</span> gave Seleucus an opportunity to remove his last rival. His intervention in the west was solicited by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy Keraunos</span>, who, on the accession to the Egyptian throne of his brother <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy II</span> (285 BC), had at first taken refuge with Lysimachus and then with Seleucus. Seleucus then invaded Asia Minor and defeated his rival in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of Corupedium</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lydia</span>, 281 BC. Lysimachus fell in battle. In addition, Ptolemy had died a few years earlier. Seleucus was thus now the only living contemporary of Alexander.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Before his death, Seleucus tried to deal with the administration of Asia Minor. The region was ethnically diverse, consisting of Greek cities, a Persian aristocracy and indigenous peoples. Seleucus perhaps tried to defeat <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cappadocia</span>, but failed. Lysimachus' old officer <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Philetairos</span> ruled<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pergamon</span> independently. On the other hand, based on their names, Seleucus apparently founded a number of new cities in Asia Minor.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Few of the letters Seleucus sent to different cities and temples still exist. All cities in Asia Minor sent embassies to their new ruler. It is reported that Seleucus complained about the number of letters he received and was forced to read. He was apparently a popular ruler. In <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lemnos</span> he was celebrated as a liberator and a temple was built to honour him. According to a local custom, Seleucus was always offered an extra cup of wine during dinner time. His title during this period was Seleucus Soter ("liberator"). When Seleucus left for Europe, the organizational rearrangement of Asia Minor had not been completed.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Seleucus now held the whole of Alexander's conquests excepting Egypt and moved to take possession of Macedonia and Thrace. He intended to leave Asia to Antiochus and content himself for the remainder of his days with the Macedonian kingdom in its old limits. He had, however, hardly crossed into the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thracian Chersonese</span> when he was assassinated by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy Keraunos</span> near<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lysimachia</span> September (281 BC).</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">It seems certain that after taking Macedonia and Thracia, Seleucus would have tried to conquer Greece. He had already prepared this campaign using the numerous gifts presented to him. He was also nominated an honorary citizen of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Athens</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Antiochus founded the cult of his father. A cult of personality formed around the later members of the Seleucid dynasty and Seleucus was later worshipped as a son of god. One inscription found in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ilion</span> advises priests to sacrifice to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Apollo</span>, the ancestor of Antiochus' family. Several anecdotes of Selecus' life became popular in the classical world.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-42688377527675187782013-01-24T23:18:00.002-08:002013-01-27T01:27:03.345-08:00Turkey<br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><b>Turkey </b> as the <b>Republic of Turkey</b> <span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span> is a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eurasian</span> country, located mostly on the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anatolia</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Western Asia</span> and on <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">East Thrace</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Southeastern Europe</span>. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bulgaria</span> to the northwest;<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Greece</span> to the west; <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Georgia</span> to the northeast; <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Armenia</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iran</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Azerbaijani</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">exclave</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nakhchivan</span> to the east; and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iraq</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Syria</span> to the southeast. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mediterranean Sea</span> is to the south; the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aegean Sea</span> is to the west; and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Black Sea</span> is to the north. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sea of Marmara</span>, the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bosphorus</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dardanelles</span> (which together form the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish Straits</span>) demarcate the boundary between <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">East Thrace</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anatolia</span>; they also separate Europe and Asia.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey is one of the seven independent <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkic states</span>. The country's official language is <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish</span>, which is spoken by approximately 85% of the population as mother tongue.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The most numerous ethnic group is the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turks</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, who constitute between 70% and 75% of the population according to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">The World Factbook</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kurds</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> are the largest ethnic minority and, according to the same source, number around 18% of the population while other ethnic minorities are estimated to be at 7–12%.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The vast majority of the population is </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Muslim</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seljuk Turks</span> began migrating into the area now called Turkey (derived from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Medieval Latin</span> Turchia, i.e. "Land of the Turks") in the 11th century. The process was greatly accelerated by the Seljuk victory over the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantines</span> at the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of Manzikert</span> in 1071.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> ruled Anatolia until the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mongol invasion</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in 1243, upon which it disintegrated into several small </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkish beyliks</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Starting from the late 13th century, the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ottoman beylik</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> united Anatolia and created an empire encompassing much of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Southeastern Europe</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Western Asia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">North Africa</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. After the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ottoman Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> collapsed following its defeat in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">World War I</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, parts of it were occupied by the victorious </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Allies</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. A cadre of young military officers, led by </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and his colleagues, organized a successful resistance to the Allies; in 1923 they would establish the modern Republic of Turkey, with Atatürk as its first president.</span></i></div>
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<i>Turkey is a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">democratic</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">secular</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">unitary</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">constitutional republic</span> with a diverse cultural heritage. Turkey has become increasingly integrated with the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">West</span> through membership in organisations such as the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Council of Europe</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">NATO</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">OECD</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">OSCE</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">G-20 major economies</span>. Turkey began <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">full membership negotiations</span> with the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">European Union</span> in 2005, having been an <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">associate member</span> of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">European Economic Community</span>since 1963 and having joined the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">EU Customs Union</span> in 1995. Turkey has also fostered close cultural, political and economic relations with the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Middle East</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Caucasus</span>, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkic states</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Central Asia</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">African countries</span> through membership in organisations such as the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkic Council</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Joint Administration of Turkic Arts and Culture</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Economic Cooperation Organisation</span>.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey's location at the crossroads of Europe and Asia makes it a country of significant geostrategic importance.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In addition to its strategic location, Turkey's growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">regional power</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The name of Turkey (</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkish</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">: </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Türkiye</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) can be divided into two components: the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">ethnonym</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Türk</span></span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and the abstract suffix </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">–iye</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> meaning "owner", "land of" or "related to" (derived from the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Arabic suffix</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">–iyya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which is similar to the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Greek</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Latin</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> suffixes </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">–ia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">). The first recorded use of the term "Türk" or "Türük" as an </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">autonym</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> is contained in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Orkhon inscriptions</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Göktürks</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Celestial Turks</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) of Central Asia (c. 8th century). The </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">English</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> name </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkey</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> first appeared c. 1369.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> It is derived from the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Medieval Latin</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turchia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, meaning "Land of the Turks", which was originally used by the Europeans to define the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Seljuk</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">-controlled parts of Anatolia after the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Battle of Manzikert</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in 1071; increasingly in common use starting with the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Crusades</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. The Greek </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">cognate</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of this name, </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tourkia</span></span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Greek</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">: </span><span lang="el" style="line-height: 19px;">Τουρκία</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) was originally used by the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Byzantines</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">define medieval Hungary</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">(since pre-</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Magyar</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hungary</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> was occupied by proto-Turkic and Turkic tribes, such as the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Huns</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Avars</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bulgars</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">,</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kabars</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pechenegs</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Cumans</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.) Similarly, the medieval </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Khazar Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a Turkic state on the northern shores of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Black</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Caspian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> seas, was referred to as </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Tourkia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Land of the Turks</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) in Byzantine sources. However, the Byzantines later began using this name to define the Seljuk-controlled parts of Anatolia in the centuries that followed the Battle of Manzikert in 1071.</span>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Anatolian peninsula</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world. </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Göbekli Tepe</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> is the site of the oldest known man-made religious structure, a temple dating to 10,000 BC,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">while </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Çatalhöyük</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> is a very large </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Neolithic</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Chalcolithic</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BCE to 5700 BCE. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date and in July 2012 was inscribed as a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">UNESCO World Heritage Site</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The settlement of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Troy</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Iron Age</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Through recorded history, ancient Anatolians have spoken </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Indo-European</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Semitic</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kartvelian languages</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hittite</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Luwian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo-European languages radiated.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hattians</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hurrians</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, non-Indo-European peoples who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia, respectively, as early as ca. 2300 BC. Indo-European </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hittites</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians ca. 2000–1700 BC. The first major empire in the area was founded by the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hittites</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, from the eighteenth through the 13th century BC. The </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Assyrians</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Phrygians</span>, an Indo-European people, achieved ascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cimmerians</span> in the 7th century BC.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The most powerful of Phrygia's successor states were </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Lydia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Caria</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Lycia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. The Lydians and Lycians spoke languages that were fundamentally Indo-European, but both languages had acquired non-Indo-European elements prior to the Hittite and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hellenistic</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> periods.</span></i></div>
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<i>Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anatolia</span> was heavily settled by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aeolian</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ionian</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Greeks</span>. Numerous important cities were founded by these colonists, such as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Miletus</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ephesus</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Smyrna</span> (modern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">İzmir</span>), and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantium</span> (later <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Constantinople</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Istanbul</span>.) The first state that was called<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Armenia</span> by neighboring peoples was the state of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Armenian</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Orontid dynasty</span>, which included parts of eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Anatolia was conquered by the Persian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Achaemenid Empire</span> during the 6th and 5th centuries BC and later fell to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander the Great</span> in 334 BC.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Following Alexander's death in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hellenistic kingdoms</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (including </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bithynia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">,</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Cappadocia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In 324, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Constantine I</span> chose <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantium</span> to be the new capital of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Roman Empire</span>, renaming it <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">New Rome</span> (later <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Constantinople</span>, modern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Istanbul</span>.) Following the death of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Theodosius I</span> in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons, Constantinople (Istanbul) became the capital of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantine Empire</span>, which would rule most of the territory of Turkey until the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Late Middle Ages</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">House of Seljuk</span> was a branch of the Kınık <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Oğuz Turks</span> who resided on the periphery of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Muslim world</span>, in the Yabghu <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Khaganate</span>of the Oğuz confederacy, to the north of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Caspian</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aral Seas</span>, in the 9th century.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In the 10th century the Seljuks started migrating from their ancestral homeland into </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Persia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which became the administrative core of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Great Seljuk Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In the latter half of the 11th century the Seljuks began penetrating into the eastern regions of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anatolia</span>. The victory of the Seljuk sultan <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alp Arslan</span> against the Byzantine emperor <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Romanos IV Diogenes</span> at the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of Manzikert</span> in 1071 gave rise to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate</span>, which developed as a separate branch of the Great Seljuk Empire that covered parts of Central Asia, Persia, Anatolia, the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Levant</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">southeast Arabia</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mongols</span>, causing the Seljuk Empire's power to slowly disintegrate. In its wake, one of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish principalities</span> governed by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Osman I</span> would, over the next 200 years, evolve into the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ottoman Empire</span>, expanding throughout<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anatolia</span>, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Balkans</span>, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Levant</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">North Africa</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In 1453, the Ottomans completed their conquest of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Byzantine Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> by </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">capturing its capital</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Constantinople</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In 1514, Sultan <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Selim I</span> (1512–1520) successfully expanded the Empire's southern and eastern borders by defeating Shah <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ismail I</span> of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Safavid dynasty</span> in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of Chaldiran</span>. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman rule into <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Algeria</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Egypt</span>, and created a naval presence in the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Red Sea</span>. Subsequently, a competition started between the Ottoman and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Portuguese</span> empires to become the dominant sea power in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indian Ocean</span>, with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">numerous naval battles</span> in the Red Sea, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arabian Sea</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persian Gulf</span>. The Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean was perceived as a threat for the Ottoman monopoly over the ancient trading routes between <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">East Asia</span> and<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Western Europe</span> (later collectively named the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Silk Road</span>, a term coined by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ferdinand von Richthofen</span> in 1877.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) This important monopoly was increasingly compromised following the discovery of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Cape of Good Hope</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> by Portuguese explorer </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bartolomeu Dias</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in 1488, which had a considerable impact on the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ottoman economy</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly during the reign of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Suleiman the Magnificent</span>. The empire was often at odds with the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Holy Roman Empire</span> in its steady advance towards <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Central Europe</span> through the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Balkans</span> and the southern part of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">At sea, the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ottoman Navy</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> contended with several </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Holy Leagues</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (composed primarily of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Habsburg Spain</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Republic of Genoa</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Republic of Venice</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Knights of St. John</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Papal States</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Duchy of Savoy</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) for control of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mediterranean Sea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. In the east, the Ottomans were occasionally at war with </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Safavid Persia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> over conflicts stemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">From the beginning of the 19th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">began to decline</span>. As it gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland in Anatolia,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">along with the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Circassians</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> fleeing the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Russian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">conquest</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Caucasus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">rise in nationalist sentiment among the various subject peoples</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hamidian Massacres</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. The Ottoman Empire entered </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">World War I</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> on the side of the</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Central Powers</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and was ultimately defeated. During the war, an estimated 1.5 million </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Armenians</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> were deported and exterminated in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Armenian Genocide</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The Turkish government</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">denies that there was</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> an </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Armenian Genocide</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and claims that Armenians were only </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">relocated</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> from the eastern war zone.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Large scale massacres were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Greeks</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Assyrians</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Following the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Armistice of Mudros</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> on 30 October 1918, the victorious </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Allied Powers</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> sought to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">partition the Ottoman state</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">through the 1920 </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Treaty of Sèvres</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">occupation of Constantinople</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Smyrna</span> by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">establishment of the Turkish national movement</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Under the leadership of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mustafa Kemal</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pasha</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Battle of Gallipoli</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkish War of Independence</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">By 18 September 1922, the occupying armies were expelled, and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ankara-based Turkish regime</span>, which declared itself the legitimate government of the country in April 1920, started to formalise the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. On 1 November, the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">newly founded parliament</span> formally abolished the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sultanate</span>, thus ending 623 years of Ottoman rule. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Treaty of Lausanne</span> of 24 July 1923 led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed "Republic of Turkey" as the continuing state of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ankara</span>, the country's new capital.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The Lausanne treaty stipulated a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">population exchange between Greece and Turkey</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">President</span> and subsequently introduced <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">many radical reforms</span> with the aim of transforming old Ottoman-Turkish state into a new secular republic. </span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">With the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Surname Law</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of 1934, the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkish Parliament</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Father of the Turks</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.)</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">remained neutral</span> during most of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">World War II</span>, but entered the war on the side of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Allies</span> on 23 February 1945, as a ceremonial gesture. On 26 June 1945, Turkey became a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">charter member</span> of the United Nations.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Difficulties faced by Greece after the war in quelling a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">communist rebellion</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, along with demands by the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Soviet Union</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> for military bases in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkish Straits</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, prompted the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">United States</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to declare the</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Truman Doctrine</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in 1947. The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece, and resulted in large-scale </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">U.S. military and economic support</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Both countries were included in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Marshall Plan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">OEEC</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> for rebuilding European economies in 1948, and subsequently became founding members of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">OECD</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">in 1961.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After participating with the United Nations forces in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Korean War</span>, Turkey joined <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">NATO</span> in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mediterranean</span>. Following a decade of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cypriot intercommunal violence</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">coup in Cyprus on 15 July 1974</span> staged by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">EOKA B</span> paramilitary organization, which overthrew President <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Makarios</span> and installed the pro-<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Enosis</span> (union with Greece) <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nikos Sampson</span> as dictator, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkey invaded Cyprus</span>on 20 July 1974.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Nine years later the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which is recognized only by Turkey, was established.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">single-party period</span> ended in 1945. It was followed by a tumultuous transition to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">multiparty democracy</span> over the next few decades, which was interrupted by military <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">coups d'état</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">1960</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">1971</span>,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">1980</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">1997</span>. In 1984, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">PKK</span> began an insurgency against the Turkish government; the conflict, which has claimed over 40,000 lives, continues today.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Since the liberalisation of the Turkish economy during the 1980s, the country has enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey is a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">parliamentary</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">representative democracy</span>. Since its foundation as a republic in 1923, Turkey has developed a strong tradition of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">secularism</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkey's constitution</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> governs the legal framework of the country. It sets out the main principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralized state.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">President of the Republic</span> is the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">head of state</span> and has a largely ceremonial role. The president is elected for a five-year term by direct elections. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Abdullah Gül</span> was elected as president on 28 August 2007, by a popular parliament round of votes, succeeding <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ahmet Necdet Sezer</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Executive power</span> is exercised by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Prime Minister</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Council of Ministers</span> which make up the government, while the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">legislative</span> power is vested in the unicameral parliament, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Grand National Assembly of Turkey</span>. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">judiciary</span> is independent of the executive and the legislature, and the Constitutional Court is charged with ruling on the conformity of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">laws and decrees</span> with the constitution. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Council of State</span> is the tribunal of last resort for administrative cases, and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">High Court of Appeals</span> for all others.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The prime minister is elected by the parliament through a vote of confidence in the government and is most often the head of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">party</span> having the most seats in parliament. The current prime minister is the former mayor of İstanbul, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Recep Tayyip Erdoğan</span>, whose conservative <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Justice and Development Party</span> won an absolute majority of parliamentary seats in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">2002 general elections</span>, organized in the aftermath of the economic crisis of 2001, with 34% of the suffrage.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">2007 general elections</span>, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">AKP</span> received 46.6% of the votes and could defend its majority in parliament.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Although the ministers do not have to be members of the parliament, ministers with parliament membership are common in Turkish politics. In 2007, a series of events regarding state secularism and the role of the judiciary in the legislature occurred. These included the controversial </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">presidential election</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of Abdullah Gül, who in the past had been involved with </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Islamist</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> parties;</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">and the government's proposal to lift the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">headscarf ban</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in universities, which was annulled by the Constitutional Court, leading to a fine and a near ban of the ruling party.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Universal suffrage</span> for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1933, and every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 years of age has the right to vote. As of 2004, there were 50 registered <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">political parties in the country</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">separatist</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, or ban their existence altogether.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">There are 550 members of parliament who are elected for a four-year term by a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">party-list proportional representation</span> system from 85 electoral districts which represent the 81 administrative <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">provinces of Turkey</span> (İstanbul is divided into three electoral districts, whereas Ankara and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">İzmir</span> are divided into two each because of their large populations). To avoid a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">hung parliament</span> and its excessive political fragmentation, only parties winning at least <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">10% of the votes</span> cast in a national parliamentary election gain the right to representation in the parliament.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Because of this threshold, in the 2007 elections only three parties formally entered the parliament (compared to two in 2002).</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Human rights in Turkey</span> have been the subject of much controversy and international condemnation. Between 1998 and 2008 the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">European Court of Human Rights</span> made more than 1,600 judgements against Turkey for human rights violations, particularly the right to life and freedom from torture. Other issues such as Kurdish rights, women's rights and press freedom have also attracted controversy. Turkey's human rights record continues to be a significant obstacle to future membership of the EU.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> According to the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Committee to Protect Journalists</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the Turkish government has waged one of the world's biggest crackdowns on press freedoms. A large number of journalists have been arrested using charges of terrorism and anti-state activities such as the</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ergenekon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Balyoz</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> cases, while thousands have been investigated on charges such as "denigrating Turkishness" in an effort to sow self-censorship. As of 2012, CPJ identified 76 journalists in jail, including 61 directly held for their published work, more than Iran, Eritrea and China.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">A former </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">U.S. State Department</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> spokesman, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Philip J. Crowley</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, said that the United States had "broad concerns about trends involving intimidation of journalists in Turkey."</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey is a founding member of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">United Nations</span> (1945), the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">OECD</span> (1961), the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">OIC</span> (1969), the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">OSCE</span> (1973), the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">ECO</span> (1985), the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">BSEC</span> (1992), the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">D-8</span> (1997) and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">G-20 major economies</span> (1999). On 17 October 2008, Turkey was <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">elected as a non-permanent member</span> of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">United Nations Security Council</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey's membership of the council effectively began on 1 January 2009.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Turkey had previously been a member of the U.N. Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955 and 1961.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europe have always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkey became a founding member of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Council of Europe</span> in 1949, applied for associate membership of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">EEC</span> (predecessor of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">European Union</span>) in 1959 and became an<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">associate member</span> in 1963. After decades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, became an associate member of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Western European Union</span> in 1992, joined the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">EU Customs Union</span> in 1995 and has been in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">formal accession negotiations</span> with the EU since 2005.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Since 1974, Turkey has not recognized the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Republic of Cyprus</span>, but instead supports the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish Cypriot community</span> in the form of the de facto <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus</span>, which was established in 1983 and is recognized only by Turkey.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Cyprus dispute</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> complicates Turkey's relations with both NATO and the EU, and remains a major stumbling block to Turkey's </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">EU accession bid.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign relations has been its ties with the United States. Based on the common threat posed by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Soviet Union</span>, Turkey joined <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">NATO</span> in 1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Washington</span> throughout the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Cold War</span>. In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Caucasus</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Balkans</span>. In return, Turkey has benefited from the United States' political, economic and diplomatic support, including in key issues such as the country's bid to join the European Union.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The independence of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkic states</span> of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Soviet Union</span> in 1991, with which Turkey shares a common cultural and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Central Asia</span>,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">thus enabling the completion of a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gas </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">pipeline</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">from </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Baku</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Azerbaijan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to the port of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ceyhan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in Turkey. The </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> forms part of Turkey's foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit to the West. However, Turkey's border with </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Armenia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, a state in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Caucasus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, remains closed following Armenia's occupation of Azerbaijani territory during the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nagorno-Karabakh War</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Under the AK Party government, Turkey's influence has grown in the Middle East based on the strategic depth doctrine, also called </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Neo-Ottomanism</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish Armed Forces</span> consists of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Army</span>, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Navy</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Air Force</span>. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gendarmerie</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Coast Guard</span> operate as parts of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in peacetime, although they are subordinated to the Army and Navy Commands respectively in wartime, during which they have both internal law enforcement and military functions.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The Turkish Armed Forces is the second largest standing armed force in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">NATO</span>, after the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">U.S. Armed Forces</span>, with a combined strength of just over a million uniformed personnel serving in its five branches.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Since 2003, Turkey contributes military personnel to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Eurocorps</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and takes part in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">EU Battlegroups</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Turkey is also considered to be the strongest military power of the Middle East region besides </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Israel</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">serve in the military</span> for a period ranging from three weeks to fifteen months, dependent on education and job location.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey does not recognise conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">nuclear sharing</span> policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Germany</span>, Italy, and the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Netherlands</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> A total of 90 </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">B61 nuclear bombs</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> are hosted at the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Incirlik Air Base</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, 40 of which are allocated for use by the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkish Air Force</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In 1998, Turkey announced a modernization program worth US$160 billion over a twenty year period in various projects including <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">tanks</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">fighter jets</span>,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">helicopters</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">submarines</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">warships</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">assault rifles</span>.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey is a Level 3 contributor to the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Joint Strike Fighter</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (JSF) program.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey has maintained forces in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since 1950, including <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">peacekeeping</span> missions in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Somalia</span> and former <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yugoslavia</span>, and support to coalition forces in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">First Gulf War</span>. Turkey maintains 36,000 troops in northern Cyprus; their presence is supported and approved by the de facto local government, but the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Republic of Cyprus</span> and the international community regard it as an illegal occupation force, and its presence has also been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey has had troops deployed in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Afghanistan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> as part of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">United States stabilisation force</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">International Security Assistance Force</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (ISAF) since 2001.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In 2006, the Turkish parliament deployed a peacekeeping force of Navy patrol vessels and around 700 ground troops as part of an expanded </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (UNIFIL) in the wake of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Israeli-Lebanon conflict</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chief of the General Staff</span> is appointed by the president and is responsible to the prime minister. The Council of Ministers is responsible to parliament for matters of national security and the adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend the country. However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be stationed in Turkey rests solely with the parliament.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The actual commander of the armed forces is the Chief of the General Staff </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">General Necdet Özel</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> since August 4, 2011.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey is a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">transcontinental</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Eurasian country. Asian Turkey (made up largely of Anatolia), which includes 97% of the country, is separated from European Turkey by the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bosphorus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sea of Marmara</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Dardanelles</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (which together form a water link between the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Black Sea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and the Mediterranean). </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">European Turkey</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (eastern </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Thrace</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> or </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Rumelia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Balkan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> peninsula) comprises 3% of the country.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The territory of Turkey is more than 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) long and 800 km (500 mi) wide, with a roughly rectangular shape.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">It lies between latitudes </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">35°</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">43° N</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, and longitudes </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">25°</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">45° E</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Turkey's area, including lakes, occupies 783,562</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">square kilometres (300,948 sq mi), of which 755,688 square kilometres (291,773 sq mi) are in Southwest Asia and 23,764 square kilometres (9,174 sq mi) in Europe.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey is the world's </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">37th-largest</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> country in terms of area. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Aegean Sea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to the west, the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Black Sea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to the north and the Mediterranean to the south. Turkey also contains the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sea of Marmara</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in the northwest.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The European section of Turkey, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">East Thrace</span>, forms the borders of Turkey with Greece and Bulgaria. The Asian part of the country,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anatolia</span>, consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, between the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Köroğlu</span>and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pontic</span> mountain ranges to the north and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Taurus Mountains</span> to the south. Eastern Turkey has a more mountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Euphrates</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tigris</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aras</span>, and contains <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mount Ararat</span>, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 ft),</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Lake Van</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the largest lake in the country.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey is divided into <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">seven census regions</span>: <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Marmara</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aegean</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Black Sea</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Central Anatolia</span>,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eastern Anatolia</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Southeastern Anatolia</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mediterranean</span>. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately one-sixth of Turkey's total land area. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey's varied landscapes are the product of complex earth movements that have shaped the region over thousands of years and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent earthquakes and occasional <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">volcanic</span> eruptions. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bosphorus</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dardanelles</span> owe their existence to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">fault lines</span> running through Turkey that led to the creation of the Black Sea. There is an earthquake fault line across the north of the country from west to east, which caused <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">a major earthquake</span> in 1999.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea have a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">temperate</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mediterranean climate</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters. The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Black Sea have a temperate </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Oceanic climate</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters. The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the greatest amount of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">precipitation</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year. The eastern part of that coast averages 2,500 millimetres annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.</span></i></div>
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<i>The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Sea of Marmara (including Istanbul), which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate Oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters. Snow does occur on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter, but it usually lies no more than a few days. Snow on the other hand is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.</i></div>
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<i>Conditions can be much harsher in the more arid interior. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">plateau</span> of the interior of Turkey a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">continental climate</span> with sharply contrasting seasons.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Winters on the eastern part of the plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">°C</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> to −40 °C (−22 °F to −40 °F) can occur in eastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground at least 120 days of the year. In the west, winter temperatures average below 1 °C (34 °F). Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures generally above 30 °C (86 °F) in the day. Annual </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">precipitation</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> averages about 400 millimetres (15 in), with actual amounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya plain and the Malatya plain, where annual rainfall frequently is less than 300 millimetres (12 in). May is generally the wettest month, whereas July and August are the driest.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 13px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey has the world's </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">15th largest GDP-PPP</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">17th largest nominal GDP</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The country is among the founding members of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">OECD</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and the</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">G-20 major economies</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. During the first six decades of the republic, between 1923 and 1983, Turkey has mostly adhered to a quasi-</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">statist</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> approach with strict government planning of the budget and government-imposed limitations over private sector participation, foreign trade, flow of foreign currency, and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">foreign direct investment</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. However, in 1983 Prime Minister </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turgut Özal</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> initiated a series of reforms designed to shift the economy from a statist, insulated system to a more private-sector, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">market</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">-based model.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The reforms, combined with unprecedented amounts of foreign loans, spurred rapid economic growth; but this growth was punctuated by sharp<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">recessions</span> and financial crises in 1994, 1999 (following the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">earthquake</span> of that year),</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and 2001;</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">resulting in an average of 4% GDP growth per annum between 1981 and 2003.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Lack of additional fiscal reforms, combined with large and growing </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">public sector</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">deficits</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and widespread corruption, resulted in high inflation, a weak </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">banking</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> sector and increased </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">macroeconomic</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> volatility.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Since the economic crisis of 2001 and the reforms initiated by the finance minister of the time, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kemal Derviş</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, inflation has fallen to single-digit numbers, investor confidence and foreign investment have soared, and unemployment has fallen.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Turkey has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on foreign trade and investment and the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">privatisation</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> of publicly owned industries, and the liberalisation of many sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> The public debt to GDP ratio, while well below its levels during the recession of 2001, reached 46% in 2010 Q3. The GDP growth rate from 2002 to 2007 averaged 7%,</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">which made Turkey one of the fastest growing economies in the world during that period. However, growth slowed to 1% in 2008, and in 2009 the Turkish economy was affected by the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">global financial crisis</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, with a recession of 5%. The economy was estimated to have returned to 8% growth in 2010.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In the early years of this century the chronically high inflation was brought under control and this led to the launch of a new currency, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish new lira</span>, on 1 January 2005, to cement the acquisition of the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">On 1 January 2009, the new Turkish lira was renamed once again as the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkish lira</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, with the introduction of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">new banknotes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">coins</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. As a result of continuing economic reforms, inflation dropped to 8% in 2005, and the unemployment rate to 10%.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tourism in Turkey</span> has experienced rapid growth in the last twenty years, and constitutes an important part of the economy. In 2008 there were 31 million visitors to the country, who contributed $22 billion to Turkey's revenues.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Other key sectors of the Turkish economy are banking, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles, oil refining, petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, machine industry and automotive. Turkey has a large and growing </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">automotive industry</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, which produced 1,147,110 motor vehicles in 2008, ranking as the 6th largest producer in Europe (behind the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">United Kingdom</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and above </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Italy</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) and the 15th largest producer in the world.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Turkey is also one of the leading </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">shipbuilding</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">nations; in 2007 the country ranked 4th in the world (behind </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">China</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">South Korea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Japan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) in terms of the number of ordered ships, and also 4th in the world (behind </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Italy</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">USA</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Canada</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) in terms of the number of ordered </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">mega yachts</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Turkey's economy is becoming more dependent on industry in major cities, mostly concentrated in the western provinces of the country, and less on agriculture. However, traditional agriculture is still a major pillar of the Turkish economy. In 2010, the agricultural sector accounted for 9% of GDP, while the industrial sector accounted for 26% and the services sector 65%.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">However, agriculture still accounted for 24.7% of employment.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">In 2004, it was estimated that 46% of total disposable income was received by the top of 20% income earners, while the lowest 20% received 6%.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> According to </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Eurostat</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> data, Turkish PPS GDP per capita stood at 49% of the EU average in 2010.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Turkey has taken advantage of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">European Union – Turkey Customs Union</span>, signed in 1995, to increase its industrial production destined for exports, while at the same time benefiting from EU-origin foreign investment into the country. Turkey now has also opportunity of a free trade agreement with the European Union (EU) – without full membership – that allows it to manufacture for tarif-free sale throughout the EU market.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">By 2009 exports were $110 bn and in 2010 it was $117 bn (main export partners in 2009: Germany 10%, France 6%, UK 6%, Italy 6%, Iraq 5%). However larger imports, which amounted to $166 billion in 2010, threatened the balance of trade (main import partners in 2009: Russia 14%, Germany 10%, China 9%, US 6%, Italy 5%, France 5%).</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">After years of low levels of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">foreign direct investment</span> (FDI), Turkey succeeded in attracting $22 billion in FDI in 2007 and is expected to attract a higher figure in following years.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> A series of large privatisations, the stability fostered by the start of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkey's EU accession negotiations</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, strong and stable growth, and structural changes in the banking, retail, and telecommunications sectors have all contributed to a rise in foreign investment.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In 2012,</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Fitch Group</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> upgraded Turkey's credit rating to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">investment grade</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> after an 18 year gap.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i>The country's official language is Turkish, which is spoken by approximately 85% of the population as mother tongue. Around 12% of the population speaks Kurdish as mother tongue. Arabic andZaza are the mother tongues of more than 1% of the population each, and several other languages are the mother tongues of smaller parts of the population. The public broadcaster TRT has a special TV channel for Kurdish that broadcasts on a 24 hour / 7day basis called TRT 6 and other TV and Radio stations that broadcast programmes in the local languages and dialects likeArmenian, Arabic, Bosnian and Circassian a few hours a week. Another special TV channel aimed at the Turkic world, TRT Avaz was launched on 21 March 2009 and broadcasts in theAzeri, Bosnian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uzbek and Turkmen languages; while the TRT Arabic television channel started broadcasting on 4 April 2010.<br /><br /> Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the Turkish Constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience Islam is the dominant religion of Turkey, it exceeds 99% if secular people of Muslim background are included. Research firms suggest the actual Muslim figure is around 98% or 97%.<br /><br />There are about 120,000 people of different Christian denominations, including an estimated 80,000 Oriental Orthodox, 35,000 Roman Catholics, 5,000 Greek Orthodox and smaller numbers of Protestants. Today there are 236 churches open for worship in Turkey. The Eastern Orthodox Church has been headquartered in Istanbul since the 4th century. Christians represent less than 0.2% of Turkey's population, according to the CIA World Factbook.<br /><br />There are about 26,000 people who are Jewish, the vast majority of whom are Sephardi.<br /><br />The Bahá'í Faith in Turkey has roots in Bahá'u'lláh's, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, being exiled to Constantinople, current-day Istanbul, by the Ottoman authorities. Bahá'ís cannot register with the government officially but there are probably 10 to 20 thousand Bahá'ís, and around a hundred Bahá'í Local Spiritual Assemblies in Turkey.<br /><br />Academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15 to 20 million. According to Aksiyon magazine, the number of Shiite Twelvers(excluding Alevis) is 3 million (4.2%), and they live in Istanbul, Iğdır, Kars, Ankara, İzmir, Manisa, Çorum, Muğla, Ağrı and Aydın. There are also some Sufi practitioners. The highest Islamic religious authority is the Presidency of Religious Affairs (Turkish: Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı), it interprets the Hanafi school of law, and is responsible for regulating the operation of the country's 80,000 registered mosques and employing local and provincial imams. The role of religion has been a controversial debate over the years since the formation of Islamist parties, especially in education. Turkey was founded upon a strict secular constitution which forbids the influence of any religion, including Islam. There are sensitive issues, such as the fact that the wearing of the Hijab is banned in universities and public or government buildings as some view it as a symbol of Islam – though there have been efforts to lift the ban. The vast majority of the present-day Turkish people are Muslim and the most popular sect is the Hanafite school of Sunni Islam, which was officially espoused by the Ottoman Empire; according to the KONDA Research and Consultancy survey carried out throughout Turkey on 2007: 52.8% defined themselves as "a religious person who strives to fulfill religious obligations" (religious); 34.3% defined themselves as "a believer who does not fulfill religious obligations" (believer); 9.7% defined themselves as "a fully devout person fulfilling all religious obligations" (fully devout); 2.3% defined themselves as "someone who does not believe in religious obligations" (non-believer/agnostic); and 0.9% defined themselves as "someone with no religious conviction" (atheist).<br /><br /><br /><br />Turkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the Oğuz Turkic, Anatolian, Ottoman (which was itself a continuation of both Greco-Roman and Islamic cultures) and Western culture and traditions, which started with the Westernisation of the Ottoman Empire and still continues today. This mix originally began as a result of the encounter of Turks and their culture with those of the peoples who were in their path during their migration from Central Asia to the West.<br />As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-based former Ottoman Empire into a modern nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, an increase in the modes of artistic expression followed. During the first years of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into fine arts; such as museums, theatres, opera houses and architecture. Diverse historical factors play important roles in defining the modern Turkish identity. Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values. The mix of cultural influences is dramatized, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures" enacted in the works of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature. Can" by Sertab Erener in Riga, 2003.<br /><br />Turkish music and literature form great examples of such a mix of cultural influences, which were a result of the interaction between the Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe, thus contributing to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and European traditions in modern-day Turkish music and literary arts. Turkish literature was heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic literature during most of the Ottoman era, though towards the end of the Ottoman Empire, particularly after the Tanzimat period, the effect of both Turkish folk and European literary traditions became increasingly felt. The Tanzimat reforms of 1839–1876 brought changes to the language of Ottoman written literature, and introduced previously unknown Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Nâmık Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh (Awakening), while the journalist Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" (The Poet's Marriage). Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923. Broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period: the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde (New Literature) movement; the Fecr-i Âtî (Dawn of the Future) movement; and the Millî Edebiyyât (National Literature) movement. The Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde (New Literature) movement began with the founding in 1891 of the magazine Servet-i Fünûn (Scientific Wealth), which was largely devoted to progress (both intellectual and scientific) along the Western model. Accordingly, the magazine's literary ventures, under the direction of the poet Tevfik Fikret, were geared towards creating a Western-style "high art" in Turkey.<br /><br />The first radical step of innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet, who introduced the free verse style. Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the Garip Movement led by Orhan Veli Kanık, Melih Cevdet Anday and Oktay Rıfat. Explicitly opposing themselves to everything that had gone in poetry before, they sought instead to create a popular art. They employed not only a variant of the free verse introduced by Nâzım Hikmet, but also a highly colloquial language, and wrote primarily about mundane daily subjects and the ordinary man on the street. The reaction was immediate and polarized: most of the academic establishment and older poets vilified them, while much of the Turkish population embraced them wholeheartedly.<br /><br />Architectural elements found in Turkey are also testaments to the unique mix of traditions that have influenced the region over the centuries. In addition to the traditional Byzantine elements present in numerous parts of Turkey, many artifacts of the later Ottoman architecture, with its exquisite blend of local and Islamic traditions, are to be found throughout the country, as well as in many former territories of the Ottoman Empire. Mimar Sinan is widely regarded as the greatest architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture. Since the 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by Western styles, and this can be particularly seen in Istanbul where buildings like Dolmabahçe and Çırağan Palaces are juxtaposed next to numerous modern skyscrapers, all of them representing different traditions.<br /><br />The Eurovision Song Contest 2003 was won by singer Sertab Erener with the song "Everyway That I Can" which was written by Erener and Demir Demirkan.<br /><br />Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.<br /><br /><br /></i><br />
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-89723563647808828592013-01-24T22:18:00.001-08:002013-01-24T22:18:18.194-08:00Antakya<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Antakya</b> <i>Antiócheia</i>) is the seat of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hatay Province</span> in southern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkey</span>, near the border with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Syria</span>. The mayor is Lütfü Savaş.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Known as <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antioch</span></b> in ancient times, the city has historical significance for <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Christianity</span>, as it was the place where the followers of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Jesus Christ</span>were called <i>Christians</i> for the first time. The city and its massive walls also played an important role during the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Crusades</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antioch</span> has been occupied by humans since the Calcolithic era (6th millennium BC), as revealed by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">archeological</span> excavations of the mound of<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tell-Açana</span>, among others.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Subsequent rulers of the area include King of Macedonia <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexander the Great</span> who, after defeating the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persians</span> in 333 BC, followed the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Orontes</span>south into Syria. The city of Antioch was founded in 300 BC, after the death of Alexander, by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seleucid</span> King <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seleucus I Nicator</span>. It had an important role as one of the largest cities in the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Roman Empire</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantium</span>, and was a key location of the early years of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Christianity</span>, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antiochian Orthodox Church</span>, the rise of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Islam</span>, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">the Crusades</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The Crusaders' <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Siege of Antioch</span> conquered the city and caused significant damage during the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">First Crusade</span>. Although the city had a large Christian population, it was betrayed by Islamic allies of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bohemund</span>, prince of Taranto. Following the defeat of the Turkish garrison, he became its overlord. It remained the capital of the Latin <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Principality of Antioch</span> for nearly two centuries.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 19px;">In 1268 it fell to the Egyptian </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mamluk</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Sultan </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Baibars</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> after </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">another siege</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Baibars proceeded to massacre the Christian population.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">In addition to suffering the ravages of war, the city lost its commercial importance because trade routes to the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Far East</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> moved north following the thirteenth-century </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mongol</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> conquests. Antioch never recovered as a major city, with much of its former role falling to the port city of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Alexandretta</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (</span><i style="line-height: 19px;">Iskenderun</i><span style="line-height: 19px;">). An account of both cities as they were in 1675 appears in the diary of the English naval chaplain </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Henry Teonge</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">n 1822 (and again in 1872), Antakya was hit by an earthquake and damaged. When <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Egyptian</span> general <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ibrahim Pasha</span> established his headquarters in the city in 1835, it had only some 5,000 inhabitants. Supporters hoped the city might develop thanks to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Euphrates</span> Valley <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Railway</span>, which was supposed to link it to the port of Sueida (now <i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Samandağı</span></i>). However, such plans were doomed to come to naught. The city suffered repeated outbreaks of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">cholera</span> due to inadequate infrastructure for sanitation. Later the city developed and rapidly resumed much of its old importance when a railway was built along the lower Orontes Valley.
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<span style="font-size: large;">See <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hatay Province</span> for the history of the region during the demise of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ottoman Empire</span>, the short-lived<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Republic of Hatay</span> (in 1938), and the area's incorporation into the Republic of Turkey in 1939.</span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" rules="all" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 2px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 2px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 2px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr align="center" bgcolor="#F0F0F0"><th><span style="font-size: large;">Cities</span></th><th align="center"><span style="font-size: large;">Ethnic group</span></th></tr>
<tr><td><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sunni</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turks</span></span></td><td><span style="font-size: large;">19,720 (58%)</span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Alawis</span></span></td><td><span style="font-size: large;">8,670 (25,5%)</span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Christian Arabs</span></span></td><td><span style="font-size: large;">4,930 (14,5%)</span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Others</span></span></td><td><span style="font-size: large;">680 (2%)</span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="font-size: large;">Total¹</span></td><td><span style="font-size: large;">34,000 (100%)</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 19px;">¹most Alawis and Armenians spoke Turkish as a second language</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 19px;">Mount </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Habib Neccar</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and the city walls which climb the hillsides symbolise Antakya, making the city a formidable fortress built on a series of hills running north-east to south-west. Antakya was originally centred on the east bank of the river. Since the 19th century, the city has expanded with new neighbourhoods built on the plains across the river to the south-west, and four bridges connect the old and new cities. Many of the buildings of the last two decades are styled as concrete blocks, and Antakya has lost much of its classic beauty.</span><span style="line-height: 13px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The narrow streets of the old city can become clogged with traffic.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Although the port of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iskenderun</span> has become the largest city in Hatay, Antakya is a provincial capital still of considerable importance as the centre of a large district. The draining of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lake Amik</span>and development of land has caused the region's economy to grow in wealth and productivity. The town is a lively shopping and business centre with many restaurants, cinemas and other amenities. This district is centred on a large park opposite the governor's building and the central avenue <i>Kurtuluş Caddesı</i>. The tea gardens, cafes and restaurants in the neighbourhood of<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Harbiye</span></i> are popular destinations, particularly for the variety of <i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">meze</span></i> in the restaurants. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Orontes</span> River can be malodorous when water is low in summer. Rather than formal nightlife, in the summer heat, people will stay outside until late in the night to walk with their families and friends, and munch on snacks.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Its location near the Syrian border makes Antakya more cosmopolitan than many cities in Turkey. It did not attract the mass immigration of people from eastern Anatolia in the 1980s and 1990s that radically swelled the populations of Mediterranean cities such as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Adana</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mersin</span>. Both <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arabic</span> are still widely spoken in Antakya, although written Arabic is rarely used. A mixed community of faiths and denominations co-exist peacefully here. Although almost all the inhabitants are <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Muslim</span>, a substantial proportion adhere to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alevi</span> and the Arab <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nusayri</span>traditions, in 'Harbiye' there is a place to honour the Nusayri saint <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hızır</span>. Numerous tombs of Muslim saints, both <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sunni</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alevi</span>, are located throughout the city. Several small Christian communities are active in the city, with the largest church being St. Peter and St. Paul on Hurriyet Caddesi. With its long history of spiritual and religious movements, Antakya is a place of pilgrimage for Christians. It has a reputation in Turkey as a place for spells, fortune telling, miracles and spirits.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Local crafts include a soap scented with the oil of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">bay tree</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Antakya is located on the banks of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Orontes River</span> (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish</span>: <span lang="tr" xml:lang="tr"><i>Asi Nehri</i></span>), approximately 22 km (14 mi) inland from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mediterranean</span> coast. The city is in a valley surrounded by mountains, the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nur Mountains</span> (ancient Amanos) to the north and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mount Keldağ</span> (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Jebel Akra</span> to the south, with the 440 m high Mount <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Habib Neccar</span> (ancient <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Silpius</span>) forming its eastern limits. The mountains are a source of a green <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">marble</span>. Antakya is at the northern edge of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dead Sea Rift</span> and vulnerable to earthquakes.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 19px;">The plain of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Amik</span> to the north-east of the city is fertile soil watered by the Orontes, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karasu</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Afrin</span> rivers; the lake in the plain was drained in 1980 by a French company. At the same time channels were built to widen the Orontes and let it pass neatly through the city centre. The Orontes is joined in Antakya by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hacı Kürüş</span> stream to the north-east of the city near the church of St Peter, and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hamşen</span> which runs down from Habib-i Neccar to the south-west, under Memekli Bridge near the army barracks. Flora includes the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">bay trees</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">myrtle</span>. There is a Jewish community.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Main_sights" style="font-size: large;">Main sights</span></h2>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The long and varied history has created many architectural sites of interest. There is much for visitors to see in Antakya, although many buildings have been lost in the rapid growth and redevelopment of the city in recent decades.</span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hatay Archaeology Museum</span> has the second largest collection of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Roman</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">mosaics</span> in the world.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">The rock-carved <i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Church of St Peter</span></i>, with its network of refuges and tunnels carved out of the rock, a site of Christian pilgrimage. There are also tombs cut into the rock face at various places along the Orontes valley.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">Old market district. It offers plenty of traditional shops, where you can explore what you have not seen before. It is exactly in the city centre, you are in when you see the sign <i>Uzun Çarşı Caddesi</i>.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">The seedy <i>Gündüz cinema</i> in the city centre was once used as parliament building of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Republic of Hatay</span>.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">The waterfalls at the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Harbiye</span> / Daphne promenade.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ottoman</span> <i>Habib-i Neccar Camii</i>, the oldest mosque in Antakya and one of the oldest in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Anatolia</span>.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">The labyrinth of narrow streets and old Antakya houses. This disrict is the oldtown in fact.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Titus</span>/<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vespasianus</span> Tunnel-Samandagı. It is approximately 35 km. far from the centre.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">Beşikli Cave and Graves (the antique city of Seleukeia Pierria)</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"><span style="font-size: large;">St. Simon Monastery</span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">Bakras Castle</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">The panoramic view of the city from the heights of the Habib-i Neccar Mountain</span></li>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 19px;">With its rich architectural heritage, Antakya is a member of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Norwich</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">-based </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">European Association of Historic Towns and Regions</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> . The Roman bridge (thought to date from the era of</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Diocletian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) was destroyed in 1972 during the widening and channelling of the Orontes.</span><span style="line-height: 10px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEjDnXJSQFnzmGdqlTr9j9mlaF3_D8ec2_r7PXzxHGCQi94qqUwQ5ZJSMiSfkrFyx8-rxwKbx5MPyELtzqtL3nCrG-iG0vRiYHUqYGwRfEsXbllbYatj_kOxRXqpFa6VOxjboI4l9ig8ePdHkeS5nBDQUVv-zL3o7klCNEYgow1G7iVK2EJmz5aEHtVSQJ3TkI63f6wWlvzNd7otbGrabxiE59bwJUUfvQeqLdLapQFo1uOnlCKEkfhWo-m8xTEbRr8bpQOGZAM_ijj0s2xNvce4i-c=" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img alt="" border="0" class="thumbimage" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Antioch_Panorama_Saint_Pierre_Church.jpg/750px-Antioch_Panorama_Saint_Pierre_Church.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Antioch_Panorama_Saint_Pierre_Church.jpg/1125px-Antioch_Panorama_Saint_Pierre_Church.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Antioch_Panorama_Saint_Pierre_Church.jpg/1500px-Antioch_Panorama_Saint_Pierre_Church.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-style: solid; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></span></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEjDnXJSQFnzmGdqlTr9j9mlaF3_D8ec2_r7PXzxHGCQi94qqUwQ5ZJSMiSfkrFyx8-rxwKbx5MPyELtzqtL3nCrG-iG0vRiYHUqYGwRfEsXbllbYatj_kOxRXqpFa6VOxjboI4l9ig8ePdHkeS5nBDQUVv-zL3o7klCNEYgow1G7iVK2EJmz5aEHtVSQJ3TkI63f6wWlvzNd7otbGrabxiE59bwJUUfvQeqLdLapQFo1uOnlCKEkfhWo-m8xTEbRr8bpQOGZAM_ijj0s2xNvce4i-c=" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; width: 752px;">
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<span style="font-size: large;">Antakya panaroma from Saint Pierre Church</span></div>
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<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
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Cuisine</span></h2>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The cuisine of Antakya is renowned. Its cuisine is considered <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">levantine</span> rather than <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish</span>. The cuisine offers plenty of meals, where beef and lambs are mainly used. Popular dishes include the typical Turkish <i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">kebab</span></i>, served with spices and onions in flat unleavened bread, with yoghurt as <i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">ali nazik</span></i> kebab, oruk, kaytaz böreği and katıklı ekmek . Hot spicy food is a feature of this part of Turkey, along with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish coffee</span> and local specialities. Here are some savour:</span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">İçli köfte</span></i> and other <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">oruk</span> varieties: varieties of the Arabic <i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">kibbeh</span></i>, deep-fried balls of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">bulgur</span> wheat stuffed with minced meat; or baked in ovens in cylinder-cone shape. Saç oruğu is made of the same ingredients, however in circular shape.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kaytaz Böreği</span><i>: It is patty that is made of wheat, beef, tomato and onion.</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Katıklı Ekmek</span><i>: Ingredients in Katıklı Ekmek usually consist of wheat, traditional pepper (paste), spices such as sesame and theme, çökelek or cheese. It looks like an ancestor of pizza. Not a lot of restaurants serve it, however it can be found in old-market that is located in the centre and Harbiye.</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pomegranate</span> syrup, used as a salad dressing, called <i>debes ramman</i>, a traditional <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Levantine Arabic</span> dressing.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Semirsek</span></i>, a thin bread with hot <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">pepper</span>, minced meat or spinach filling</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">Spicy chicken, a specialty of Harbiye</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Za'atar</span> (Zahter) a traditional <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Levantine Arabic</span> paste of spiced thyme, oregano, and sesame seeds, mixed with olive oil, spread on flat (called <i>pide</i> or in English pita) bread.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">Fresh <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">chick peas</span>, munched as a snack.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hirise</span></i>, boiled and pounded wheat meal.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i>Aşur</i>, meat mixed with crushed wheat, chickpea, cumin, onion, pepper and walnut</span></li>
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<dl style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;">
<dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Meze</span></span></i></dt>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hummus</span> - the chick-pea dip</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">pureed <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">fava beans</span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Patlıcan Salatası</span>: Patlıcan salatası or babaganoush, made of baked and sliced aubergines that mixed</span></li>
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<span style="font-size: large;">with pepper and tomato. It is usually served with pomegranate syrup.</span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Taratur</span>: Known also as Tarator, made of walnuts, 'tahin', yogurt and garlic.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Süzme Yoğurt</span>: A type of yogurt that its water content is removed with traditional methods.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ezme Biber</span>: It is made of pepper and walnuts.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Surke</span> - the spicy sun-dried cheese</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Çökelek</span> - dried <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">curds</span> served in spicy olive oil</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eels</span> from the Orontes, spiced and fried in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">olive oil</span></span></li>
</ul>
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<dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;">Sweets/Desserts</span></dt>
</dl>
<ul style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Künefe</span></i> - a hot cheese, <i>kadaif</i>-based sweet. Antakya is Turkey's <i>künefe' capital; the pastry shops in the centre compete to claim being kings <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Turkish</span>: </i><span lang="tr" xml:lang="tr">kral</span> <i>of the pastry. The secret is in the light yellow cheese which they use.</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Müşebbek</span></i> - rings of deep fried pastry.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Peynirli İrmik Helvası</span></i> - Peynirli İrmik Helvası is a dessert that is made of semolina, sugar and traditional cheese that is the same as used in künefe. It is served warm, especially in restaurants in the region Harbiye, rather than künefe shops that are located in the centre.</span></li>
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<span style="line-height: 19px;">The </span><b style="line-height: 19px;">Orontes</b><span style="line-height: 19px;"> is a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">river</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Lebanon</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Syria</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Turkey</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">It was anciently the chief river of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Levant</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">, also called </span><b style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Draco</span></b><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">, </span><b style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Typhon</span></b><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> and </span><b style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Axius</span></b><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">. The last was a native form, from whose revival, or continuous employment in native speech, has preceded the modern name </span><i style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">‘Āṣī</i><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="line-height: 19px;"> ("rebel"), because the river flows from the south to the north unlike the rest of the rivers in the region</span><span style="line-height: 10px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span></span></div>
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The name Orontes is the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hellenized</span> form of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Iranic</span> name, Haeravanta, meaning "that of grandeur." There are a great number of rivers and mountains carrying a variety of this name all over where the ancient and modern Iranic peoples have settled, from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pamirs</span> to Anatolia and the Levant. Rivers like the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arvand</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alvand</span> (Iraq), mountains like <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alvand</span> (Iran), and the Iranic Armenian dynasty, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Orontids</span> (a dynasty that traces its founding originator to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bactria</span>/<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Balkh</span> in the Iranic northern Afghanistan). In its Arabized form, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Halwan</span>/<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hilwan</span>, the name is carried by towns and villages from Egypt to Iran. These all carry this ancient Iranic compount name in its various form, standing for grandeur and greatness. Today, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kurds</span> and their Aryan kin, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Armenians</span>, still inhabit the lower reaches of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Orontes</span>.
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The Orontes rises in the great springs of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Labweh</span> on the east side of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Beqaa Valley</span>, very near the fountains of the southward-flowing <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Litani</span>, and it runs due north, parallel with the coast, falling 2000 feet (600 m) through a rocky gorge. Leaving this it expands into the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lake of Homs</span>, having been dammed back in antiquity. The valley now widens out into the rich district of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hamah</span> (Hamaih-Epiphaneia), below which lie the broad meadow-lands of<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Amykes</span>, containing the sites of ancient <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Apamea</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Larissa</span>. This central Orontes valley ends at the rocky barrier of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Jisr al-Hadid</span>, where the river is diverted to the west, and the plain of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antioch</span> opens.</div>
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Two large tributaries from the north, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Afrin</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karasu</span>, here reach it through the former <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lake of Antioch</span>, which is now drained through an artificial channel (Nahr al-Kowsit). Passing north of the modern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Antakya</span> (ancient Antioch) the Orontes plunges southwest into a gorge (compared by the ancients to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tempe</span>), and falls 150 feet (50 m) in 10 miles (16 km) to the sea just south of the little port of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Samandağı</span> (former Suedia, in antiquity Seleucia Pieria), after a total course of 150 miles (240 km).</div>
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Mainly unnavigable and of little use for irrigation, the Orontes derives its historical importance solely from the convenience of its valley for traffic from north to south; roads from the north and northeast, converging at Antioch, follow the course of the stream up to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Homs</span> where they build the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Al-Rastan</span>dam, where they fork to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Damascus</span> and to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Syria</span> and the south; and along its valley have passed the armies and traffic bound to and from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Egypt</span> in all ages. On the Orontes was fought the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of Kadesh</span> during the reign of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ramesses II</span> (1279 – 1213 BC). By the Orontes the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of Qarqar</span> was fought in 853 BC, when the army of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Assyria</span>, led by king <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shalmaneser III</span>, encountered an allied army of 12 kings led by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hadadezer</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Damascus</span>. In 637 A.D the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Battle of Iron bridge</span> was fought between the forces of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Rashidun Caliphate</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantine Empire</span> near the <i>Iron bridge</i> on the river made by Romans.</div>
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The Orontes has long been a boundary marker. For the Egyptians it marked the northern extremity of <i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Amurru</span></i>, east of Phoenicia. For the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Crusaders</span> in the 12th century, the Orontes River became the permanent boundary between the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Principality of Antioch</span> and that of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aleppo</span>.</div>
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The French writer <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maurice Barrès</span> (1862–1923) wrote about the river in his <i>Un Jardin sur l'Oronte</i>.</div>
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-90498133108503587042013-01-24T07:30:00.001-08:002013-01-24T07:31:36.596-08:00Gokarna Math<i><br /></i>
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<i><b>Gokarna Matha</b> is one of the 24 <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">mathas</span> of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dvaita</span> order, a system established by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Madhvacharya</span> in the 13th century AD.</i></div>
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<i>This matha is also called Partagli Jivothama and is headquartered in Partagli, a small town in South <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Goa</span>, on the banks of the river <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kushavati</span>. There is still ongoing research to establish who exactly founded the math and when exactly it was founded. As per historic lore it is said that it was initiated by Shri Raghothama Theertharu (Bhavabodharu) of Uttaradi Matha. It is said that this matha was formed after it split away from<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Palimar</span> at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Udupi</span> initiated by Shimad Ananda Theertharu (Madhvacharya).</i></div>
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<i>The first pontiff of the matha was Narayanatirtha. The deity worshiped by the institution is Ramdev Veervitthal. The math became well known as Jivottama Matha after the third pontiff, Jivottama Tirthar.</i></div>
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<i>This math was also a victim of Portuguese Christian missionary activities that drove the original establishment from Madgao to Bhatkal in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karwar</span> District in Karnataka. Shri Narayana Theertharu was a great scholar of the Dvaita order and earned the name "Shri Paada Wodayaru", for which he is still known today. During the late 1950s, Shri Dwarakanatha Theertharu established several educational institutions and republished several seminal works.</i></div>
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<i>In the true sense, establishment of Shree Mutt renowned as the Shree Samsthan Gokarn Partagali Jeevottam Mutt coincidentally took place in the Himalayas at Badrikashram on Chaitra Shukla 2, saka 1397 (1475 A.D.)</i></div>
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<i>Shree Madhvacharya had established Ashtamuttas (eight mutts) at Udupi to disseminate the Dvaita philosophy of the Mudhva sect. Of these eight, one was the Phalimaru Mutt. The Saraswat community spread along the Western Coast of India, following the philosophy of the Vaishnava sect had accepted the spiritual guidance of this Phalimaru Mutt.</i></div>
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<i>The tenth Acharya of the Phalimaru Muth Shree Ramchandra Teerth, while on a pilgrimage to the Himalayas accompanied by his entourage, was taken seriously ill. The place being inaccessible and remote from Udupi, it was not possible to establish any contact with the headquarters of the Mutt at Udupi. Fearing that the lineage of the Acharyas of the Mutt may be severed in case he breathes his last at the feet of Lord Narayan, and the tradition of the Mutt would be curtailed, as an alternative arrangement he ritually conferred the discipleship on an eligible Saraswat bhrahmachari (celibate bachelor). Having thus initiated him into the Mutt tradition by giving diksha and having bestowed the name of Shree Narayan Teerth on him, the Guruswami advised him to return to Udupi after duly completing his pilgrimage.</i></div>
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<i>After being duly initiated into renunciation, Shree Narayan Teerth resolved to complete his pilgrimage to the sacred spots and shrines of North India. Thus moving from places of pilgrimage such as Kurukshetra and Brahmavarta to Brahmahruda, he finally arrived at the world-renowned pilgrim centre of Varanasi. This ancient land of Vaishnavas is considerd as the abode of rest of Lord Madhava.</i></div>
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<i>The holy month of Kartik had drawn near and the Swamiji was aware of the extraordinary significance of the sacred dip at the Panchaganga ghat at this auspicious time. In fact, it has been mentioned in the Ramayana that Lord Ram had made a year-long sojourn at Varanasi on the way to his vanavas (disbandment).</i></div>
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<i>It so happened that, during the very month of Kartik, the princess of Kashi (Varanasi), along with her companions arrived at the ghat for the gangasnaan (holy bath). As had been her practice, she kept her ornaments on the bank over the clothes and dipped into the water. But due to the extreme cold, she began to shiver and quickly rushing for dry clothes on the shore and pulled them on.</i></div>
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<i>Having completed their bath, as the entire troupe was about to return to the palace, it was discovered that the diamond studded bangle of the princess was lost. But where could it go? Who could have dared to steal the bangle of the princess? An intense search was launched but to no avail.</i></div>
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<i>An hermit was seen engaged in japa anushtthan (ritual of chant-worship) at one corner of the ghat. Many had seen this alien sanyasin (ascetic) there. Although there was a hue and cry over the lost ornament of the princess, it had not disturbed the Concentration of the hermit engrossed in his worship. However, the soldiers disturbed his meditation and accosted him with their suspicion. His reply was spontaneous and forthright:</i></div>
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<i>"We are ascetics who have renounced the world. What enticement could wealth and ornaments hold for the like of us? When we don't even covet a square meal a day, why would we turn traitors to our own belief of non-accumulation and astheya vrata (nonsteaking) ?"</i></div>
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<i>Although Shree Narayan Teerth was unmoved by the accusation, the soldiers refused to be dissuaded by his candid speech and searched him. But they were crestfallen when they found nothing on his person!</i></div>
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<i>There was no iota of doubt left about the innocence of Shree Narayan Teerth, when the waters of the river receded the bangle was discovered in the shallow riverbed near the bank.</i></div>
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<i>The royal family sought forgiveness of Shree Narayan Teerth. The King of Kashi heard that an innocent sanyasin had been harassed by the royal household. He Was deeply disturbed. He felt that he had to seek personal forgiveness for his high handedness of the royalty. Coming to the Panchaganga ghat, he fell at the feel of Shree Narayan Teerth.</i></div>
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<i>"We are ashamed of what has come to pass. Swamiji may kindly forgive us." The King prayed.</i></div>
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<i>Shree Narayan Teerth replied, "Oh Royal Prince' In your kingdom dharma and religiousity have always been given generous patronage. On this Panchaganga ghat, mother Ganga has turned the corner of her stream to become ishyanyaplava (oriented towards the North-East). We belong to the Gaud Saraswat Brahmin community from the distant land of Aparant, but we are deeply devoted to Mother Ganga in the holy land of Kashi. We desire that more and more people or our community should visit this sacred place to seek the darshan of Mother Ganga and bathe in the holy waters: So we intend to have Mutt premises here. If your Royal Highness takes active interest in this project, it would be a virtuous act of benevolence."</i></div>
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<i>The repentant King of Kashi was much relieved by the words of Shree Narayan Teerth. He helped the construction of a modest of a mutt premises on the very ghat facing Shree Bindu Madhav temple on the banks of the ishyanyaplava Ganga. Having ritually installed the pancha-dhatumaya (quinta-metalic) idol of Shree Laxmi Narayan and having inade adequate arrangements for the daily pooja of the deity.</i></div>
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<i>Shree Narayan Teerth Swamiji had established the arch Mutt in the Varanasi region, in the absence of any clear perception regarding the existing and ideal relations between the Mutt and the society. The primary objective behind the establishment of a Mutt would be solely to raise the banner of one's sect in a leading place of pilgrimage and to provide a secure shelter to the pilgrims who venturing forth to remote lands in search of spiritual solace and benediction. [Nonetheless his great venture had also launched a new tradition since] This was the initial Mutt of the Vaishnav sect of Saraswat Brahmins.</i></div>
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<i>Having thus established the first Mutt at Kashi, Shree Narayan Teerth Swamiji returned to Udupi. After some time, the venerable Guru Shree Ramchandra Teerth Swamiji having recovered from his ailment believed to be incurable, also returned to his own Mutt. On seeing Shree Narayan Teerth, the Guruswami was cast into a quandary. He was in two minds. The Dravid Brahmins wanted him to rescind the authority over the Peetha granted to Shree Narayan Teerth; while he himself was aware of the worth of the Batu who had served him so well during his pilgrimage and who having taken diksha as his disciple had planted the banner of his glory in the holy region of Varanasi.</i></div>
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<i>As a way out, the revered Guru anointed Shree Vidyanidhi Teerth as his successor and advised Shree Narayan Teerth to organize the Saraswat Brahmin community and to create a separate Mutt tradition. Accordingly, Shree Narayan Teerth arrived at Bhatkal and having erected a Mutt premises there began the spread of faith among the Saraswat community in the land of Parashur am.</i></div>
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<i>That was the beginning of the Shree Samsthan Gokarn Partagali Jeevottam Mutt which is considered as the emblem of Saraswat identity and the rallying point for their unification. Devoted for over 530 years to preserve and organize a people forced to be disorganized and committed to serve and energize a community ordained to undergo many an ordeal by fate and compelled to be dispersed by history, the success story of the Mutt also contains the history of the Saraswat community. In this long march ahead, the Mutt has had the rare fortune of having an unhindered lineage of 23 Swamijis. The tiny sapling planted on the banks of lshyanyaplava Ganga by H.H. Shree Narayan Teerth Swamiji and nurtured by this long unbroken tradition has today in the form of the holy Mutt burgeoned like a mighty, banyan tree with its branches spread far and wide.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Main Deities of Samsthan Gokarna Math are charaprathishta (literally, a moving installation) idols of Lord Shri Veera Vittala and Lord Shri Rama.</i></div>
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<i>Gokarna Math follows a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Guru</span> system, wherein the head of the Math appoints a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">shishya</span>, who succeeds the Guru. According to the Math's tradition, the shishya should be unmarried, and is selected at a very young age.</i></div>
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<i>Shri Gokarna Math are followers of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dwaita</span> school of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vaishnavite</span> philosophy founded by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maadhwacharya</span>.</i></div>
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<i>The spiritual head, or the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mathadipathi</span> is the administrative head of the math and its properties. As a math specific to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gowd Saraswat Brahmins</span> , the mathadhipathi seldom mingle with members of other communities. The mathadhipathi is not a mere spiritual head of the community. In the past, the mathadhipathi exercised powers over secular matters of the community too. The current Mathadhipathi of Sri Gokarna Math Samsthan is H.H. Vidhyadhiraja Theertha Swamiji.</i></div>
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<i>Shrimat Vidyadhiraja Swamiji (Poorvashram Name: Shri Raghavendra Acharya, Native Place: Basrur, in the Present Udupi District), 23rd in the pontifical lineage was given Sanyas Deeksha on 26th Feb.,1967 in Shri Ram Mandir Wadala, Mumbai by his illustrious preceptor, Shrimat Dwarakanath Tirth Swamiji, who brought Shri Gokarn Math to Mumbai as earlier there was no branch of the math in the city. Shri Swamiji ascended to gurupeetha on 5 April 1973 and thereafter tirelessly working for the spiritual upliftment of the followers, the prime duty cast on the maths. Under his leadership quite a few old temples and math branches were renovated and rebuilt and Shri Swamiji revived in a big way the ancient-most mode of worship by yagas and yajnas and also by undertaking pilgrimages to holy places, including the ones in the remote part of the Himalayas.</i></div>
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<i>In 1997, during Dasara in Shri Ram Mandir, Mumbai, in the year of Golden Jubilee of India's Indepedence, for the welfare of the Indian nation in particular and humanity in general, Shri Swamiji organised a series of Maha Yagnas when thousands from all over the country participated. Interestingly though a particular yajna is performed in a particular place, Shri Swamiji organises in such a way that the young and the school going tiny tots as well as the old can participate sitting in their own home. For instance, in 1997, for "Koti" (one crore) likhita (written) Shri Rama Nama Japa Yajna, hundreds of note books in which thousands have chanted and written in their own handwriting the mantra, Shri Rama Jaya Rama Jaya Jaya Rama, arrived at the venue. The enthusiasm of the devotees was so great that as against the targeted one crore, 23 crore mantras arrived at the scene! This year, April, 2000 for the mammoth Shatakoti (one hundred crores - one billion) Shri Rama Nama Japa Yajna, organised in commemoration of the 525th Foundation Day of the Samsthan and Shri Swamiji's Silver Jubilee of ascending the gurupeetha, a devotee could chant any number at home, keep a daily record in a card supplied by the math and send it over to Partagali where the yajna took place. "Among all the yajnas, japa yajna is the greatest," so declares Gita and Shri Swamiji actually propagates it by word and spirit.</i></div>
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<i>Among many pilgrimages Shri Swamiji has undertaken, the most difficult was virtually an expedition to Shri Damodar Kund in the Himalayas about 20,000 feet above the sea level. Some 500 years ago the third Swamiji of the math, Shrimat Jeevottam Tirth Swamiji by whose name the math is called on account of his great many feats, had gone on a pilgrimage and Shrimat Vidyadhiraj is the second one to repeat this in the year 1998 traversing and climbing the snow clad peaks. The followers were deeply impressed by this accomplishment of their beloved guru and so they gave him the title of Abhinav (new) Jeevottam Swamiji! This year Shri Swamiji is undertaking another difficult pilgrimage, from Gangotri, the source of Ganga to Gangasagar where Ganga meets the sea.</i></div>
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<i>Shri Swamiji is a great Sanskrit scholar and all the GSBs can be proud of his accomplishments. He has mastered all the books on Madhwa Philosophy, Kavyas like Raghuvamsh, Kumar Sambhav, Kirartarjuneey and Nasishadh and also Jyotishya, Agama and Dhramashastras. He likes self-study and is fond of linking auspicious moments and stars to all his religious programmes. He is a lover of GSB History and Culture and always states that Gowda Saraswats are generous leaders with the spirit of service to all. Shri Swamiji has maintained a good two way communication with shishya varga and also friendly ties with other mathadhipatis. His greatest success is in making Shri Gokarn Math a vibrant and dynamic religious institution answering to the religious needs of the modern society especially popularising that great mantra of mantras, Shri Rama Nama, taking it to every home and heart.</i></div>
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><i>Guru Parampara</i></span></h2>
<table class="wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 1em;"><thead>
<tr><th rowspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" width="20px"><i>SL No</i></th><th rowspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" width="180px"><i>Name</i></th><th rowspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" width="170px"><i>Purvashrama Name</i></th><th colspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>Birth (A.D)</i></th><th colspan="3" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>Ashrama Sveekar</i></th><th colspan="3" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Samadhi</i></th><th rowspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" width="30px"><i>Ref</i></th></tr>
<tr><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="70px"><i>Date</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Place</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="70px"><i>Date</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="2px"><i>Age</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Place</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="70px"><i>Date</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="2px"><i>Age</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Place</i></th></tr>
</thead><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>1</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Narayana Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Bhatkal</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>2</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Vasudeva Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Pandarpur</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>3</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Jeevothama Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Bhatkal</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>4</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Purushothama Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Gokarnam</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>5</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Anujeevothama Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Dicholi</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>6</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ramachandra Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ravan</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>7</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Digvijaya Ramachandra Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ankola</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>8</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Raghuchandra Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Honavar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>9</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Lakshmi Narayana Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Nasik</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>10</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Lakshmikantha Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Honavar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>11</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ramakantha Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ankola</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>12</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kamalakantha Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Gokarnam</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>13</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Shrikantha Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Partagali</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>14</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Bhuvijaya Ramachandra Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ankola</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>15</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ramaanatha Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Venkatapur</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>16</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Lakshminaatha Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Baroda</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>17</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ananda Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Partagali</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>18</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Poornaprajna Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Partagali</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>19</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Padmanabha Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Partagali</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>20</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Indirakantha Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Partagali</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>21</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kamalanatha Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Partagali</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>22</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Dwarakanatha Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Partagali</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>23</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Vidhyadhiraja Theertha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td colspan="3" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>Present <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mathadipathi</span></i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Samadhi.2FVirndavan" style="font-size: small;"><i>Samadhi/Virndavan</i></span></h2>
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<i>According to a custom followed in the Gokarna Math , after Swamiji passes away, the mortal remains of the departed Swamiji are buried in the earth after suitably embalming the body with preservatives - salt, camphor, heaps of Tulsi leaves etc. - usually in the Math premises or in temples associated with the Math. Subsequently, a memorial structure is constructed over the site. The entire place is known as the Vrindavana or Samadhi of the Swamiji. Arrangements are made for the daily pujas in the Vrindavana and the Punya Tithi (death anniversary) of the Swamiji is duly celebrated with special pujas and prayers and Abhishekam to the Hanuman idol for his blessing to the Matha Samsthan and its followers.</i></div>
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-74287670520592957552013-01-24T07:25:00.005-08:002013-01-24T07:25:45.222-08:00Shri Gaudapadacharya Math<i><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Shri Gaudapadacharya Math</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, also known as </span><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Kavaḷē maṭha </span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, located in </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kavale</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ponda</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Goa</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> is the oldest </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">matha</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> of the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">South Indian</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Saraswat Brahmins</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> It was founded by</span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gauḍapāda</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> around 740 AD, whose student was </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Govinda Bhagavatpada</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">guru</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> of </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Adi Shankara</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, a highly influential figure in Hinduism.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">There is also a belief that Gauḍapāda himself established the Shri Gaudapadacharya matha when he lived in Gomantak (Goa). Thus, the matha came to be known as </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Shri Saunstan Gaudapadacharya matha</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">. Unlike other mathas, Shri Gaudapadacharya matha is not a polemical center established to influence the faith of all Hindus, its jurisdiction is limited to only Dakshinatya Saraswat Brahmins. The </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Peetadhipathi</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> "head monk" is Śrī Gauḍapadācārya. </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Smartist</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Goud Saraswat Brahmins</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> are its main disciples.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Śrī Sansthāna Gauḍapadācārya Maṭha was founded in 740 AD </span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> at Kushasthali near Keloshi (Quelshim) in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Goa</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> by Shri Vivarananda Saraswati, who along with Adi Shankara was a disciple of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Govinda Bhagavatpada</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, who in turn was Gaudapada's disciple. There is also belief among people that the matha was established by Gaudapada.</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">During the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Portuguese rule in Goa</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in 15th and 16th century, Hindus were forcibly converted to Christianity,</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">and many Hindu temples and mathas were destroyed.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> In 1564,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> the Gaudapadacharya matha at </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Keloshi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> was destroyed by the Portuguese. Challenged by the Portuguese atrocities, to safeguard the tradition, legacy of the matha and the Sanatan Dharma, 57th guru Shrimat Purnananda Saraswati Swami Gowdapadacharya had to leave Goa and find shelter at the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Golvan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> matha ashram. 58th Guru Shrimat Sahajananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya and 59th Guru Shrimat Vidyananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya also stayed at the Golvan matha. 60th Guru Shrimat Ramananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya stayed in Chinder matha. 61st Guru Shrimat Sadananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya left for </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Varanasi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> along with his disciple the 62nd Guru Shrimat Bhavananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya, as the hostile situation in Goa did not improve for Hindus.</span></i></div>
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<i>Later as the peace returned to Goa, Shri Vittal Shyama Sharma Shenavi Ranganekar of Kaundinya <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gotra</span> from Kushasthali along with a group of Saraswats went to Varanasi to persuade the 62nd Guru to return to Goa from Varanasi. During those times, it used to take 6 months or more to reach Varanasi and return to Goa. The guru listened to the plea's to return to Goa, but politely refused to oblige due to his old age and his desire to spend his remaining life in sacred place of Varanasi, abode of god <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shiva</span>. This forced the group of people to return to Goa; however, Ranganekar decided to remain with the guru and serve him in order to get some more time to persuade him to return to Goa. Unrelenting, Ranganekar later one day threatened to go on <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">fast-unto-death</span> if the guru would not return to Goa. When several requests of the guru to Ranganekar to reverse his decision did not yield any results, in presence of several important Hindu religious leaders and Sants and Sadhus of Varanasi, performed the religious rituals and gave <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sanyasa</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">deeksha</span> to Ranganekar and made him his disciple and renamed him Shrimat Sachidananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya.</i></div>
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<i>After giving <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">diksha</span>, Shri Bhavananda Saraswati ordered Shri Sachidananda Saraswati to return to Goa and perform the duties of dharma <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">guru</span> of Saraswats according to the Śrī Sansthāna Gauḍapadācārya Maṭha’s tradition. In his journey, on the way to Goa Shri Sachidananda Saraswati Swamiji was felicitated and assisted to make his journey comfortable by the kings and general public. Mean time news of Ranganekar taking <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">sannyasa</span> diksha spread among Saraswat Brahmins in Goa, but some people refused to believe that as truth which led to division of Saraswat Brahmins into 2 groups.</i></div>
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<i>There was couple of reasons why people refused to believe because as per the tradition, only a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">brahmacharin</span> can take sannyasa diksha and Ranganekar was a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gamanashrama</span> and the sannyasa diksa was not performed in presence of the disciples from Goa. So some people believed that Ranganekar is trying to enjoy the special status and power of being Peetadipathi and thereby own the property of the matha. Moreover Shrimat Sachidananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya was not carrying any documents signed by Shri Bhavananda Saraswati authenticating his new status.</i></div>
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<i>All these developments forced Shrimat Sachidananda Saraswati swami Gauḍapādāchārya to return to Varanasi in mid-way and appraised Shrimat Bhavananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya about the situation. Then Shrimat Bhavananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya invited the religious leaders of Varanasi to a gathering at Mukthi Mantap to discuss the matter and wrote a letter stating that Shri Sachidananda Saraswati swamij Gauḍapādāchārya was indeed his disciple and Uttaradhikari of Shri Saunstan Gauḍapādāchārya matha in Goa and he would be the spiritual guru of Saraswat Brahmins of Gomantak region and which was signed along with other religious leaders gathered there and handed over to Shrimat Sachidananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya.</i></div>
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<i>Shrimat Sachidananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya then decided to stay few more days with his guru Shrimat Bhavananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya in Varanasi and later returns to Goa where a grand welcome awaited him and he stayed in Sonavade Matha in Ratnagiri.</i></div>
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<i>As peace prevailed in Goa region, in 1630 new Matha building was built in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kavale</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ponda</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Goa</span>, which in those days was a part of Sonde Kingdom, under Hindu rule. The land for this matha was gifted by then ruler Shri Basavalinga Soundha. After the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Math</span> building was built, Shrimat Satchidananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya who was staying in Sonavade matha moved to this new matha and became the first <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Peetadhipathi</span> to stay in this matha and it was made the headquarters of the Shri Saunstan Gauḍapādāchārya Matha.</i></div>
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<i>The group of Shenavi Saraswat Brahmins who still refused to acknowledge Shrimat Satchidananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya as the new Guru split from larger Saraswat community and later founded new matha called <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chitrapur Math</span> in 1708.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Since the matha was established, all </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Dakshinatya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> or southern Saraswat Brahmins were the disciples of this matha and all Saraswat Brahmins were followers of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Smartism</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. In 12th Century A.D.</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Madhvacharya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> propagated the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Dvaita</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> philosophy and promoted </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bhakti</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> movement centred around god </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Krishna</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> which gave fillip to </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Vaishnava</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> sect and a large section of Saraswat Brahmins converted to Vaishnavism.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Later in 1476 A.D. </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gokarna Math</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and in 1542 A.D. </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kashi Math</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> was founded under Vaishnava sampradaya and those Saraswat Brahmin converts to Vaishnavism started following these new mathas.</span></i></div>
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<i>In Kali Yuga Sri Gaudapadcharya is the first preceptor to imbibe the Vedanta Wisdom and imparted it to his disciples, thus he is the first historical exponent of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Advaita Vedanta</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> He is the guru of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya</span> (the guru of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Adi Shankaracharya</span>), thus he is the grand guru of Adi Shankaracharya.</i></div>
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<i>Gauḍapādāchārya authored <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Ma-n.d.ukya Ka-rika-</span> which is known by several names such as <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Gaud.apa-da Ka-rika-</span>, Mandookya Vartika, Mandukopanishad Gaudapada Vakyan, Aagama Granth, Upadesha Granth and also by the name <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">A-gama S'a-stra</span></span> a commentary on <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mandukya Upanishad</span>. Gauḍapādāchārya describes the subtle meanings locked in the mantras of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mandukya Upanishad</span>, one of the shortest but most profound<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Upanishads</span>, or mystical Vedas, consisting of just 13 prose sentences. Although it is a small book by its length, its philosophical contents are very profound and far reaching, and it is considered one of the greatest works of fundamental philosophy by all scholars. Gaud.apa-da Ka-rika- is an example of the rational <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">epistemics</span> of ultimate reality and it is the earliest known systematic exposition of Advaita Vedanta.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>That is why this book is also known as 'Vedanta Moola' meaning the basis of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vedanta</span> philosophy. He explained the illusionary nature (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">maya</span>) of the world and the reality of the Parabhrahman.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Gaudapadcharya wrote commentary on Sāṁkhya Kārikā of Iśvarakṛṣṇa (3rd century), and his other works included Anurgeeta-bhasya, Uttargeeta-bhasya, Chidananda Kelivilas.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Adi Shankaracharya at the end of his famous commentary to the <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Gaud.apa-da Ka-rika-</span> addresses the following salutation to Gauḍapādāchārya as his 'Parama Guru' (grand teacher) and compliments him for recovering <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Advaita Vedanta</span> from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vedas</span>. That verse in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sanskrit</span> goes like this<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>Prajnā-vaishākha-vaighashrubhit-Jalanidhe-vaidn-āmnontarastam |</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>Bhutānyālokya magnānya-virat-janan-agrahdhore samudre |</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>Karuna-yadudhrdh-dharamrat-amidam-marairdhurlabham bhuthetoho |</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>Yastam poojyābhipujyam paramaguru-mamun pādpatairnimāmi ||</i></dd></dl>
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<i>In English it means: 'I prostrate before the Master of my Master (ParamaGuru), the most venerable among the venerable who, seeing the beings immersed in the ocean of this world, ocean infested by frightening sharks such as birth and death, has given, out of compassion towards all beings, this nectar difficult to drink even by the gods and that is hidden in the depths of the great sea of the Vedas, Vedas that he reveals by the power of his enlightened intellect'.</i></div>
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<i>Though there is not much written details about Gaudapadcharya's past life, according to a legend<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>Gaudapadacharya was born to Shri Vishnudatta and Gunavathi in a devout Saraswat Brahmin family at Bhupalam near Vitta in the present district of Sangli, and his name was Shukadatt.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> He renounced his life at a very younger age and went to the nearby hill forest in quest of spiritual wisdom. There he was instructed by God through <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nabhovani</span> (inner voice) to march towards North to fulfill his spiritual wisdom. Dattadeva received the wisdom of Vedanta through the grace of Lord Narayana and the blessings of Shri Vedavyasa at Badrikashrama.</i></div>
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<i>Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya ( <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Govinda Bhagavatpāda</span>) was the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Guru</span> of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Advaita</span> philosopher, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Adi Shankara</span>,<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> and it is mentioned in all the traditional accounts (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shankara Vijayams</span>). He is also mentioned in the very first verse of Shri Adi Shankaracharya's <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Prakaraņa grantha</span> (treatise) <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Viveka Chudamani</span>. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Adi Guru Gaudapadacharya</span> was his <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Guru</span> (Teacher).<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>In around 780 AD, Adi Guru <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Gauḍapādāchārya</span> was on a pilgrimage to Kashi (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Varanasi</span>) with his <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sishya</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya</span>, and they stayed at a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">tapovan</span> where he established an ashram inside a cave on the banks of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Narmada River</span>. At the same time, a boy called Shankara who was in search of a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Guru</span>, learnt from people about <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Gauḍapādāchārya</span>as a great <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yogi</span> living in a cave on the river bank in deep meditation. Shankara soon reached the ashram and stood before the entrance of the cave singing some verses. Hearing the verses <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya</span> asks from the cave who was standing near the cave and Shankara reples in the form of 10 slokas ending with the refrain "Sivahkevaloham". These ten <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">slokas</span>constitute the famous Dasasloki of the Acharya.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> After some conversations Shankara expressed his desire to be initiated into <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sanyas</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya</span> conveyed it to his Guru <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Gauḍapādāchārya</span>.</i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Gauḍapādāchārya</span> from his power of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tapasya</span> found out that this Shri Shankra was an incarnation of Lord Shiva and born to uplift the Vedas and thus Sanatana Dharma and instructs his<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sishya</span> Shri <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya</span> to give <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">deeksha</span> to Shri Shankara and later <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya</span> initiated Shri shankara into Sanyasa and named him as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Shankara Bhagavatpadacharya</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> After giving <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">deeksha</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya</span> instructed <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Shankarachaya</span> to write a commentary on the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahma Sutras</span> and propagate the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Advaita</span>philosophy. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Shankarachaya</span> stays with his Guru for some more years and mastered the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vedanta</span>.</i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya</span> also gave <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">deeksha</span> to another vatu and named him Shri Vivarananda, who returned to head Shri Gauḍapādāchārya matha at Keloshi in Goa.</i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bhavanishankar</span>, an aspect of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shiva</span> is the aradhya devata (tutelary deity) of the matha.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>Daily trikal (Morning, Afternoon, and Evening) <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Puja</span> is offered by the Mathadipati (head monk)<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>to Bhavanishankar along with deities <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vishnu</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Devi</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Surya</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ganesha</span> according to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Smarta</span> tradition of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Panchayatana</span> (five deity) puja system.</i></div>
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<i>Vivarananda Swami founded the matha's tradition that the name of every Swami of the line should carry the suffix 'Anand', honorific 'Saraswati', designation 'Swami' and the name of his grand guru Gaudapadacharya as the matha is also named after him. Similar to how a King is addressed when he enters the royal court with his Birudāvali (Title), Mathadhipatis of the matha are also addressed in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sanskrit</span>. The Birudāvali of Shree Swami goes like this.</i></div>
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<i><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Shrmat-paramhans-parivrājak-āchārya-pādvākya-pramān-parāwar-parin yam-niyam-āsan-prānāyām-pratyāhar-dhyān-dhārana-samādhya-ashtānga yog-anushtān-nagarishtha-nishthān-ādi-guru-paramparā-prapt nigam-āgam-sār shruti-mārg-prakāshak sarva-tantra swatantra shrimajjmad-agni-tanuj tapah-swadhyāyā-adyārtha vinirmit shuparik mahākshetra gomant-achal gomati-tir-sannihit kushasthali-nagar mahāmuth-ādi-pratistāpana-āchārya sakal-sur-mukut-mani-neerājit divya-shri-bhavāni-shankar-pād-aravind-arādhar shreemat-atmānanda-saraswati-kar-kamal-sanjāt shreemat-poornānanda-saraswati-anugrahit shreemat-satchitānand-saraswati shree-padai</span> ||</i></div>
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<i>The name of Shree Swami and his guru and grand guru mentioned in above Birudāvali will change depending on the Swami addressed.</i></div>
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<i>The following well-known 'Parampara-stotra' among <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Smarthas</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sanskrit</span> has the list of early Advaita teachers in their order and that is recited at the beginning of the study of Commentaries,<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nārāyanam</span> Padmabhuvam <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vasishtam</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">shaktiæ</span> ca tatputraæ <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Parāsharam</span> ca |</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vyāsam</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shukam</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gaudapāda Mahantam</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Govindam</span> Yogindram athasya shishyam |</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Shankarāchārya</span> mathasya Padmapādam ca hastamalakam ca shishyam |</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>Tam trotakam vartika karamanyan asmad guru-nsantat-amanato ’smi ||</i></dd></dl>
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<i>It means: 'To Narayana, to the lotus-born Brahma, to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vaśiṣṭha</span>, to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shakti Maharshi</span> and to his son Parashara, to Vyasa, to Shuka, to great Gaudapada, to Govinda-Yogindra and to his disciple Sri Shankaracarya, then to his disciples Padmapada, Hastamalaka, Totraka and Vartikakara [Suresvara], to these our Masters we pay our respectful obeisance now and forever'.</i></div>
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<i>From this verse we can understand that, first teacher being <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lord Narayana</span> himeself and line of descent from father to son up-to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sri Shuka Acharya</span>. From <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lord Narayana</span> to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sri Shuka Acharya</span> the line of succession is known as 'Vamsarsi-parampara' and from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sri Gaudapadcharya</span> starts the descent of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sanyasins</span> and known as 'Manava-Guru-Shishya-parampara'.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>To bifurcate Acharyas according to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yuga</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>A) In <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Satya or Krata Yuga</span></i></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>1) <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lord Narayana</span> / <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lord Sadashiva</span> and 2) <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lord Brahma</span>.</i></dd></dl>
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<i>B) In <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Treta Yuga</span></i></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>1)<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vasishta Maharishi</span> 2)<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shakti Maharishi</span> and 3) <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Parashara Maharishi</span>.</i></dd></dl>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>C) In <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dvapara Yuga</span></i></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>1) <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Veda Vyasa</span> and 2) <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sri Shuka Acharya</span></i></dd></dl>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>D) In <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kali Yuga</span></i></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>1) Acharyas start with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sri Gaudapada Acharya</span>. </i></dd></dl>
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Lord Narayana</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Lord Sadashiva</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Lord Brahma</i></li>
</ul>
<h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<i>Vamsarsi-parampara</i></h4>
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Vasishta Maharishi</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Shakti Maharishi</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Parashara Maharishi</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Veda Vyasa</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Sri Shuka Acharya</i></li>
</ul>
<h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<i>Manava Guru-Sampradaya</i></h4>
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Sri Gaudapada Acharya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Sri Govinda Bhagavatpadaacharya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Shri Adi Shankaracharya</i></li>
</ul>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><i>Gaudapadacharyas</i></span></h3>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The Shri Gaudapadacharya matha follows a '<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Guru</span>-<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sishya</span>' system in which head of the Matha appoints a shishya, who succeeds the guru. A shishya is selected at very young age. The existing head of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Math</span> decides upon a worthy disciple, initiates him as a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">sannyāsin</span>, and appoints him as the head.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The available details of Guru-Shishya parampara of Shri Saunstan Gaudapadacharya matha is as given below.<span style="line-height: 13px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span></i></div>
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>1. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Gauḍapādāchārya</span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>2. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya</span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>3. Shrimat Vivarananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya & <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shri Adi Shankaracharya</span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>4. Shrimat Adinath Paramashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>5. Shrimat Sadashiva Paramashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>6. Shrimat Ishwara Paramashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>7. Shrimat Rudra Pramashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>8. Shrimat Vishnu Paramashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>9. Shrimat Brahma Paramashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>10. Shrimat Sanaka Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>11. Shrimat Sadananda Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>12. Shrimat Sanatana Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>13. Shrimat SanatKumara Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>14. Shrimat Sarika Sujata Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>15. Shrimat Rhibhushita Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>16. Shrimat Dattatreya Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>17. Shrimat Raivata Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>18. Shrimat Vamadeva Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>19. Shrimat Vyasa Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>20. Shrimat Shuka Mahashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>21. Shrimat Nrisimha sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>22. Shrimat Mahesha Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>23. Shrimat Bhaskara Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>24. Shrimat Mahendra Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>25. Shrimat Vishnu Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>26. Shrimat Madhava Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>27. Shrimat Mahesh Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>28. Shrimat Advaitha Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>29. Shrimat Paramatmananda Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>30. Shrimat Siddayogeshwarananda Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>31. Shrimat KAivalyananda Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>32. Shrimat Amritananda Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>33. Shrimat Hansananda Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>34. Shrimat Brahmananda Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>35. Shrimat Vimalananda Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>36. Shrimat Sachidananda Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>37. Shrimat Vimalananda Sadashivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>38. Shrimat Ramamnda Sadashvananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>57. Shrimat Poornananda Saraswati Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>58. Shrimat Sahajananda Saraswati Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>59. Shrimat Vidyananda Saraswati Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>60. Shrimat Ramananda Saraswati Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>61. Shrimat Sadananda Saraswati Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>62. Shrimat Bhavananda Saraswati Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>63. Shrimat Sachidananda Saraswati Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>64. Shrimat Shivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya & Shrimat Atmananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>65. Shrimat Ramananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>66. Shrimat Jyotirananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya, Shrimat Lilananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya, Shrimat Sadananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya & Shrimat Poornanada Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>67. Shrimat Ramananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>68. Shrimat Shivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>69. Shrimat Atmananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>70. Shrimat Poornananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>71. Shrimat Ramananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>72. Shrimat Shivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>73. Shrimat Atmananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>74. Shrimat Poornananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>75. Shrimat Ramananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>76. Shrimat Sachidananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>77. Shrimat Shivananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya </i></li>
</ul>
<div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The Kavale matha has following branches/<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ashramas</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>1. Shri Sanstan Gauḍapādāchārya matha, (Headquarters), <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kavale</span></b>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ponda</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Goa</span>, Pin- 403 401. This Moola matha (headquarters) was built and inaugurated by 63rd pontiff Shri Sachidananda Saraswati Swamiji. This matha is in close vicinity of Shri Shantadurga temple and there are six Samadhis within the premise. This matha was built about seventy years after the original matha at Keloshi was destroyed by Portuguese. Land for this matha was donated by King Basavalinga Soundha of Sonde Kingdom who ruled at the time.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>2. Kashi matha: K22/58, Durga ghat, <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Varanasi</span></b> ([Kashi]), U.P., Pin - 221 008. This matha situated on Durgaghat in Kashi and the presiding deity of the matha is Lord Yaduraj.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>3. Near Dhruvakila, <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahmavarta</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kanpur</span></b>, U.P.. Brahmavarta is ancient well known holy place. The matha is in the fort at Dhrub Ghat on the banks of River Ganga. Near to this place stands magnificent palace of King Uttanapada. This matha has a Shri Rama Temple. The matha used to get an annual grant of thousand rupees from the former Indore state.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>4. <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nasik</span></b>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maharashtra</span>, Pin - 422 011. This matha is located on the banks of the river Godavari in Nasik and close to the Sarkarwada of Shrimant Peshwa, has two Samadhi's in it. The land for this matha was gifted by a Patil during Peshwas rule. In 1657, then ruler Chatrapati Sahu Maharaj made a permanent grant to this matha, later Gaekwad of Baroda also made a cash grant of Rs 1525/- a year. Once during 74th Shrimat Poornananda Saraswati Gauḍapādāchārya's stay in the matha, it caught fire and his disciple Vishnu Vinayak Gaitonde saved the life of Shri swamiji by putting his own life in to great risk. In this tragedy several valuable records including grant deeds were destroyed.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>5. 91, Banaganga Tank Road, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Malabar Hill</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Walkeshwar</span>, <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mumbai</span></b>, Pin - 400 006. This matha is on Malabar hill, in Mumbai along the shores of Arabian sea. Thers is famous Banganga lake in front of this matha. The Kashi matha building and the well-known Shree Walkeshawar temple is also in the close vicinity of this matha. There are three samadhis in this matha. Shri Ramshenvi Lotlikar of Vatsa Gotra had donated the land for this matha. This matha was last rebuilt by 76th Shrimat Sachidananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya. For rebuilding the matha, cornerstone was laid by Shri Kashi <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mathadish</span>, Shimat Sudhindra Teertha Swamiji on 28 February 1963 in the devine presence of Shrimat Dwarakanath Teertha Swami Wadiyar of Shri Gokarna matha. This was the first and rare occasion where swainji's of three Saraswat matha's came together. Later the rebuilt matha was ceremonially inaugurated by Shimat Sudhindra Teertha Swamiji of Kashi matha on 28 May 1967.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>6. matha Gali, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Khanapur</span>, <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Belgaum</span></b>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karnataka</span>, Pin - 591 302. This matha is situated on the banks of Malprabha river in Khanapur village in Belgaon District of Karnataka and it houses three samadhis. This matha was built during Shree Ramananda Saraswati in about 1758 AD. In this matha Panchmuhki idol of Shree Mangesh Shankar (Uma-Maheshwar) is worshiped. The Peshwas donated the township of Marisapur for upkeep of the matha. During the riots of Kittur that swept the area, matha was looted and Gold and Silver were lost worth lakhs of Rupees along with records of grants given to matha.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>7. Vithalapur, <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sankhali</span></b>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Goa</span>, Pin- 403 505. This matha is about 17 miles away from matha at Kavale. This matha houses the Samaadhi of Shree Brahmananda Saraswati and Shree Poornananda Saraswati, the 66th Swamiji in this matha. Shri Satroji Rane had built this matha in Saka 1722.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>8. <b>Sonvade</b>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kudal</span>, Taluk <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sindhudurg</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maharashtra</span>, Pin - 416 520. This matha is situated in Sonavade village of Kudal in Sawantwadi. There are three samadhis in this matha including that of 63rd Guru Shree Satchidananda Saraswati. Prince of Wadi Bhonsale donated the land for this matha along with agricultural land for maintenance of the matha.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>9. <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chinder</span></b>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Malvan</span> Taluk, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sindhudurg</span> Dist, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maharashtra</span>, Pin - 416 602. This matha was established and inaugurated by Shree Poornananda Saraswati, the 66th Swamiji. Shree Ramanand Saraswati, disciple of Shri Vidyananda Saraswati lived here.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>10. <b>Golvan</b>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Golvan</span> Taluk, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sindhudurg</span> Dt., <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maharashtra</span>. This matha is in Golvan village, Golvan taluka, Maharashtra. There are three samadhis in this matha, of those Shri Poornananda Saraswati, Shri Sahajananda Saraswati and Shri Vidyananda Saraswati.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>11. <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chinchewada</span></b>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sadashivgad</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karwar</span>, North <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karnataka</span>, Pin - 581 352. This matha was built during then <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mathadish</span> Shree Shivanand Swamiji in Saka 1793, about 3 km from Karvar, north Karnataka. The main deity Shree Sharadamba devi is worshipped in this matha along with Shiva Linga of black stone marked with concentric circles. When Rudrabhisheka is done to this Shiva Linga, one can hear the booming sound of 'Aum'. This matha also houses samadhi of Shree Shivanand Saraswati swamiji the 73rd swaimiji.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>12. <b>Halage</b>, Dhol, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karwar</span> District, North <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karnataka</span>, Pin - 581 328. In this matha idol of Shree Vithal Vishveshwar is installed and worshipped. Land for this matha was donated by Ramachandra Marthoba Nadkarni Malapurkar and his brothers ob 16 February 1890. This is the birthplace of Shree Atmananda Saraswati Swamiji, the seventy fourth Swamiji.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>13. Main Road, Shree Kshetra <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gokarna</span></b>, North <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Canara</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karnataka</span> Pin - 581 326. This matha was constructed in between Saka 1830 - 1841 and the marble idol of Shri Chakravarti Shivalinga was installed in it on Phlalguna Shukla Dashami ( 29 th February 1920). The land for the matha was donated by Annapurnabai Shabaji Kulkarni of Chendiye, Karvar Taluk to Shri Atmananda Saraswati in Saka 1753.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>14. E-70, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Greater Kailash</span> Part - I, <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">New Delhi</span></b>, Pin - 110 048. This matha was inaugurated on 16th Feb, 1978 by Kashi matha Swamiji. Shri Sachidananda Saraswati Swami Gauḍapādāchārya installed the Shri Shantadurga idol. Swamiji's from Shri Gokarn matha and Chtrapur matha were also present at the occasion. Shri B.D.Jatti, then vice-president of India visited the matha and offered respects to Shri Swamijis.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>15. 45, <b>Somavar Pet</b>, Tilakwad, <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Belgaum</span></b>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karnataka</span>, Pin - 590 006.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>16. Lakshmeshwar, <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ankola</span></b>, North <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Canara</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karnataka</span>, Pin - 581 314.</i></li>
</ul>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The following branches of Shri Gauḍapādāchārya matha have temple within their precincts.</i></div>
<ol style="list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Vithal Rakhumai temple at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kavale</span> matha.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Uma Maheshwar temple at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Khanapur</span> matha.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Mahakali and Muralidhar Gopalakrishna temple at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Walkeshwar</span> matha, Mumbai.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Bhavanishankar temple <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sonavade</span> matha, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sindhudurg</span>.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Sita Ramachandra temple at Brahmavart matha, U.P.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Bhavanishankar temple at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chindar</span> matha, Kankavali.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Venu Gopal at Kashi matha, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Varanasi</span>, U.P.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Vithal Vishveshwar temple at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Halage</span> matha, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sadashivgad</span>.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Sharadamba temple at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sadashivgad</span> matha.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Chakravarti Shivaling at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gokarna</span> matha, North <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Canara</span>, Karnataka.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shrē Shree Datta Mandir at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ankola</span> matha. </i></li>
</ol>
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kashi Math</span> (Varanasi, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Uttar Pradesh</span>)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chitrapur Math</span> (Shirali, Karnataka)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gokarna Math</span> (Partagali, Goa)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dabholi Math</span> (Kudal,Maharastra)</i></li>
</ul>
</div>
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-38795486378758084302013-01-24T07:00:00.000-08:002013-01-24T07:00:30.769-08:00Dvaitadvaita<i><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Dvaitadvaita</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> was proposed by </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nimbarka</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, a Vaishnava Philosopher who hailed from </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Andhra</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> Region. Nimbarka’s philosophical position is known as Dvaitadvaita (Bhedabheda vada). The categories of existence, according to him, are three, i.e., Chit, acit, and </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Isvara</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">. Cit and acit are different from Isvara, in the sense that they have attributes (Guna) and capacities (Swabhaava), which are different from those of Isvara. Isvara is independent and exists by Himself, while 'cit' and 'acit' have existence dependent upon Him. So, at the same time 'cit' and 'acit' are not different from </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Isvara</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, because they cannot exist independently of Him. Here, difference means a kind of existence which is separate but dependent, (para-tantra-satta-bhava) while non-difference means impossibility of independent existence (svatantra-satta-bhava).</span>
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<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>According to Nimbarka's Dvaitadvaita philosophy of differential <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">monism</span>, various philosophical terms are understood as follows.</i></div>
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<i>The Highest Reality, according to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nimbarka</span>, is <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahman</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Krishna</span> or <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hari</span>, a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">personal God</span>. There is nothing that is equal to Him, nothing that is superior. He is the Lord of all, and Controller of all. He is called <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahman</span> because of the unsurpassed greatness of His nature and qualities, because He is beyond any limit of any kind of space, time or thing.</i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahman</span> is the sole cause of creation, maintenance and destruction of the Universe. All beings arise from Him, nothing that is superior to Him. The Lord alone is the first cause, the manifestor of all names and forms, and none else.</i></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>This <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahman</span> is both the upadana (material cause) and the Nimitta (efficient cause). It is the material cause in the sense that it enables its natural saktis, viz. the cit and the acit in their subtle forms, to be manifested in gross forms; and it is the efficient cause in the sense that it unites the individual souls with their respective fruits of actions and means of enjoyments.</i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nimbarka</span> discusses two aspects of Brahman. On one hand, Brahman is eternal and great, the greatest of the great, the highest of the high, the creator, etc. of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Universe</span>, high above the individual soul, of which He is the Lord and the ruler. But, on the other aspect He is the abode of infinite beauty, bliss and tenderness, and in intimate connection with the soul. He is the abode of supreme peace, supreme grace, and the ocean of all sweetness and charms.</i></div>
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<i>Thus, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahman</span> possessed of attributes and adorable by all, has four forms or vyuhas (i.e., Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha) and appears under various incarnation as Matsya, Kurma etc.</i></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The cit or individual soul is of the nature of knowledge (jnana-svarupa); it is able to know without the help of the sense-organs and it is in this sense that words like prajnana-ghanah svayamjyotih jnanamayah etc. as applied to jiva are to be understood. The jiva is the knower also; and he can be both knowledge and the possessor of knowledge at the same time, just as the sun is both light and the source of light. Thus the soul, who is knowledge, and his attribute, knowledge, though they are both identical as knowledge, can be at the same time different and related as the qualified (dharmin) and the quality (dharma), just as the sun and his light, though identical as light (taijasa), are still different from each other. Thus there is both a difference and a non-difference between the dharmin and dharma; and the extreme similarity between them implies, not necessarily their absolute identity, but only a non-perception of their difference.</i></div>
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<i>The jiva is also ego (ahamarthah). This ego continues to persist not only in the state of deep sleep, (because our consciousness immediately after getting up from sleep has the form slept happily or knew nothing) but also in the state of libera tion. It even belongs to the Parabrahman. Hence it is that <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Krishna</span> refers to Himself so frequently in the first person in the Gita, of which the chief object is thus Purusottama, who is omniscient and at the same time non-different from the ego or asmadartha.</i></div>
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<i>The jiva is also essentially active (kartr). This quality belongs to it in all its conditions, even after release. But the kartrtva is not independent. The jiva is also enjoyer (bhoktr) essentially in all its conditions.</i></div>
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<i>For his knowledge and activity, however, the jiva depends on Hari; thus, though resembling Him in being intelligent and knower, he is at the same time distinguished from him by his dependence. This quality of dependence or of being controlled (niyamyatva) is the very nature of jiva even in the state of release, just as niyamyatva or the quality of being the controller, forms the eternal nature of Isvara.</i></div>
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<i>The jiva is atomic in size; at the same time his attribute, knowledge, is omnipresent, which makes it possible that he can experience pleasure and pain in any part of the body, just as, for instance, the light of a lamp can spread far and wide and illumine objects away from the lamp. The Jivas are different and in different bodies, and so are infinite in number.</i></div>
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<i>The acit is of three different kinds: viz. prakrta, aprakrta, and kala. Prakrta, or what is derived from Prakrti, the primal matter, aprakrta is defined negatively as that which is not the product of prakrti, but its real nature is not clearly brought out. These three categories in their subtle forms are as eternal as the cit or the individual souls.</i></div>
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<i>[Nimbarka does not explain what exactly the aprakrta is, nor does he define kala more precisely, beyond noticing, as pointed out above,that the aprakrta and the kala are species of the acit. But, Purusottamacarya of the Nimbarka school has, in his Vedantaratna-manjusa, described acit aprakrta as the material cause of the dhama(celestial abode) of Brahman and the bodies and ornaments etc.of Brahman and his associates. </i></div>
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<i>Prakrti, or the primal matter-the stuff of the entire universe is real and eternal like the individual souls, and like them, though eternal and unborn, has yet Brahman for its cause. It consists of the three qualities of sattva, rajas and tamas, such as prakrit, mahat, ahankara etc. (just similar to 24 principles of the Sankhyas).</i></div>
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<i>The jiva has his true form distorted and obscured owing to his contact with karma resulting from ignorance, which is beginningless, but which can come to an end, by the grace of God, when its true nature is fully manifested.It's a part of god.</i></div>
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<i>To attain deliverance, the jiva has to commence with a complete submission to the Paramatman, or prapatti, whose six constituents are:-</i></div>
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<i>1) a resolution to yield (anukulasya samkalpah) 2) the avoidance of opposition (pratikulasya varjanam) 3) faith that God will protect (raksisyati ity visvasah) 4) acceptance of him as saviour (goptrtva-varanam) 5) throwing one’s whole soul upon him (atmaniksepah), and 6) a sense of helplessness (karpanya).</i></div>
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<i>God’s grace extends itself to those who are possessed of these 6 constituents of prapatti, i.e., who are prapanna; and by that grace is generated bhakti consisting of special love for him, which ultimately ends in the realisation (saksatkara) of the Paramatman. For a devotee knowledge of the following 5 things is quite necessary:</i></div>
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<i>1) the nature of the supreme soul, 2) the nature of the individual soul, 3) the fruit of God's grace or moksa, (which is an uninterrupted realisation of the nature and attributes of Brahman, following from the absolute destruction of all action and the consequent extinction of all sentience), 4) the feeling of enjoyment consequent on bhakti, and 5) the nature of the obstacles in the way of the attainment of God, such as regarding the body and the mind as the soul, depending on someone who is neither God nor the preceptor, neglecting their commands, and considering God as nothing more than an ordinary being.</i></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Sri Nimbarka refers to 4 methods of sadhanas:</i></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Karma</i></span></span></h3>
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<i>Performed conscientiously in a proper spirit, with one’s varna and asrama thereby giving rise to knowledge which is a means to salvation).</i></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Vidya</i></span></span></h3>
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<i>Not as a subordinate factor of karma but as an independent means.</i></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Upasana or dhyana</i></span></span></h3>
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<i>It is of three types. First is meditation on the Lord as one's self, i.e. meditation on the Lord as the Inner Controller of the sentient. Second is meditation on the Lord as the Inner Controller of the non-sentient. Final one is meditation on Lord Himself, as different from the sentient and non-sentient.</i></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Gurupasatti</i></span></span></h3>
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<i>Devotion and self-surrender to guru.</i></div>
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<i>Sri Nimbarkacharya made the "Bhasya" of the Bramhasutra on His Dvaitadvaita Vedanta (Principle of Dualism-Nondualism) in his famous book "Vedanta Parijata Sourabha".</i></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-15828760587657440692013-01-24T06:56:00.001-08:002013-01-24T06:56:09.999-08:00 Shivalli Brahmins<i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">The </span><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Śivaḷḷi <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahmins</span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">are a Hindu community in </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Tulu Nadu</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">. They are divided into two groups, the first of which follows the</span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Dvaita</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> philosophy founded by the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Vaishnava</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> saint </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Madhvacharya</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> of </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Udupi</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> and the second of which follow the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Advaita Vedanta</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> philosophy of </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Adi Shankara</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> and are known as </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Shivalli Smartha Brahmins</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Shivalli Brahmins are famous for </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Udupi hotels</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (vegetarian restaurants) known for serving typical south Indian dishes like </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">idli</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">vada</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">dosa</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, shira and</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">upma</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> etc.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Shivalli Brahmins have a unique style of cooking, serving and eating meals. The meal is served on a plantain (banana) leaf and is usually eaten by hand, seated in a squatting position on the floor.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> The meal is wholesome and elaborate in preparation, serving and eating.</span></i></div>
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<span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Shivalli Brahmin males undergo the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Upanayana</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> when they turn seven years old to initiate them into Vedic studies.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">It is also known as Brahmopadesham. The key ritual during the Upanayana is that of putting a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">sacred thread</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> consisting of three cotton strands across the left shoulder of the boy. The initiate is called a </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">dvija</span></span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> "twice-born" and is expected to perform the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">sandhyavandanam</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> at least twice daily. Dvija has a special knot in it which is called as "Brahma Gant". Shivalli Madhwa Brahmins also undergo the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Upakarma</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, where the sacred thread is changed and mudradharana is done. Mudradharana is a ritual where Vaishnavite </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">symbols</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> like the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">conch</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> or the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">wheel</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> are etched on bodies as a ritual of purification...</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Currently, the prevalent practice is to paint the symbols using gopichandana paste. In old vedas it is mentioned that after upanayana he enters the stage of Brahmacharya ashram, leading a celibate and austere life of a student in his teacher’s home, eating from handouts given by the generous neighbors. It is equivalent to say he will undergo studies excluding all other aspects in modern days. When he has accomplished his studies of the Vedas, he enters the Grahastha ashram, a married man becoming head of his household. This dvija also called as "Janivara" is replaced with six cotton strands during the wedding.</span></i></span></div>
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<span class="mw-headline"><i>Present day marriages of Shivalli Madhva Brahmins are a Four day ceremony, sometimes condensed to a single day due to the fast pace of today's life.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</span></sup> In the three day ritual, the process of marriage starts with <b>Naandi</b> ( literally meaning start ). During Naandi, which takes place in the groom's and bride's homes separately, but at the same time, a ceremony is performed where the bride and groom have coconut oil and turmeric applied to them and are bathed in hot water followed by other rituals. <b>Marriage</b> ( Madimae in Tulu ) takes place at a temple, hall or auditorium followed by lunch. All the ceremonies are held as per <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">horoscopes</span> of bride and groom at a particular time called <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">muhurtha</span>. Generally the day after marriage, a ceremony called as the <b>Bigara authana</b> (a sort of reception) is held at the groom's place and consists of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Satyanarayana puja</span> and other rituals followed by lunch. The bigara authana is an equivalent of the marriage reception. Fourth day is small function at Brides house named as "Aarthakshathe" It is a ritual where shamiana (house decorative) will be removed concluding end of the ceremony. Bride and Groom's Basinga(a wearing specially worn on wedding day) is tied to a pole in the Bride's house and the newly married couple will start their new life with elders' (hiriyer) blessings.</i></span></div>
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<span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Shivalli Brahmins celebrate all major Hindu festivals such as </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ganesh Chaturthi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Deepavali</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Navaratri</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sankranti</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, Madhwanavami, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Janmashtami</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, Bisu Parba(Tulu New Year), Ramanavami, Hanuman Jayanthi etc. They also believe in </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">nagaradhane</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and rituals of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bhuta Kola</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></span></div>
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<span class="mw-headline"><i>Every shivalli Brahmins belong to a particular <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">gotra</span>, essentially a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">clan</span>. Gotras are named for <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">rishis</span>, Hindu poet-sages. Marriage is not allowed between members of the same gotra(sagotra in Tulu). However,those belonging to Angirasa gotra don't have this restriction. Tulu Brahmins belong to the following gotras:.</i></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Bhargava</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Jamadagni</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Vishwamitra</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Bhardwaja</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Vashista</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Angirasa</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Kashyapa</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Koundanya</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Haritsa</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Agastya</i></span></li>
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<span class="mw-headline"><i><b>Shivalli Brahmins of Kerala</b> are an <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">ethnic group in Kerala</span>, part of the larger Tulu <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahmin</span> subsect primarily found in the Indian state of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karnataka</span> and the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kasaragod district</span> of Northern Kerala. Their mother tongue is the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tulu language</span>. Since the ancient times they have been spread through the northern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kasaragod</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dakshina Kannada</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Udupi</span> districts of Karnataka. Today, there is a sizeable Tulu Brahmin population in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thiruvananthapuram</span> and elsewhere in the state, where they have migrated.</i></span></div>
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<span class="mw-headline"><i>While maintaining a vegetarian diet, Shivalli Madhwa Brahmins are expected to avoid eating the following vegetables and fruits:</i></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Tomato</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Onion</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Garlic</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Potato (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">sweet potato</span> or kelang is allowed)</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Papaya</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Brinjal (a variety of brinjal called <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Matti</span> Gulla, and Perampalli Gulla available around Udupi, are allowed)</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>French beans (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">cluster beans</span> or alasande are permitted)</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Carrot</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Beet root</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Radish</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Cabbage</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Cauliflower</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Drum sticks</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Bottle gourd</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Water melon</i></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>Mushrooms</i></span></li>
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<span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Today, these restrictions are mostly followed only in the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ashta Mathas of Udupi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and some temples of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">South Canara</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> apart from orthodox Shivalli households. These vegetables and fruits are not considered to be origin of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Parashurama</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> kshetra and are </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">tamasic</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> foods</span><span style="line-height: 10px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. For example, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">tomatoes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">potatoes</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">pineapple</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> are from the New World and not native to India. Besides Shivalli Brahmins, a number of other Hindu communities across India avoid Onion and garlic for being </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">tamasic</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.Shivalli Brahmins are not supposed to eat </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">puffed rice</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">para-boiled rice</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span></i></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-23582324883348610302013-01-24T06:50:00.001-08:002013-01-24T06:50:27.925-08:00Shuddhadvaita<i><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Shuddadvaita</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> (</span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sanskrit</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">: </span><span class="Unicode" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; line-height: 19px; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">śuddhādvaita</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">; pure non-dualism) is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Vallabhacharya</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> (1479-1531 CE), the founding philosopher and guru of the </span><span class="Unicode" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; line-height: 19px; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Vallabhā sampradāya</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> ("tradition of Vallabh") or </span><span class="Unicode" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; line-height: 19px; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Puśtimārg</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> ("The path of grace"), a </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Hindu</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Vaishnava</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> tradition focused on the worship of</span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Krishna</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">. Vallabhacharya's pure form (</span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">nondualist</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">) philosophy is different from </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Advaita</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">. The </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Shrinathji</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> temple at </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nathdwara</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, and compositions of eight poets (</span><span class="Unicode" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; line-height: 19px; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">aṣṭachap</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">), including </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Surdas</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, are central to the worship by the followers of the sect.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Though the tradition originated near </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Vrindavana</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in the current </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Indian</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> state of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Uttar Pradesh</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, in modern times followers of Shuddadvaita are concentrated in the states of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Rajasthan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gujurat</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>In the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">ancient Vedic tradition</span> of knowledge and comprehension of reality, the central theme would be experiencing the Supreme Entity or Brahm. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vedas</span> primarily contain references to the adwaitnature of Brahm. However, depending on how a scholar perceives those verses, s/he might see duality— dwait aspect as well. This ambiguity has led to several philosophical traditions in the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indian history</span>, such as:</i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Advaita vāda</span> or Māyāvāda of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Adi Shankaracharya</span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dvaita vāda</span> or Bhedavāda of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Madhvacharya</span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vishistadvaita vāda</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ramanujacharya</span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dvaitadvaita vāda</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nimbarkacharya</span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shuddhadvaita vāda of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vallabhacharya</span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Achintya Bhedābheda vāda</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Krishna Chaitanya</span></i></li>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vallabhacharya</span> was a devotional philosopher, who founded the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pushti</span> sect in India. He won the title of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">acharya</span> by traveling and debating <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">advaita</span> scholars from a young age.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In 1493-94 </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Vallabhacharya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> is said to have identified an image of Krishna at the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Govardhan hill</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> at </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Braj</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. This image, now called </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Shrinathji</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and located at </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Nathdwara</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Rajasthan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, is central to the worship by Vallabha followers.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">According to Vallabha tradition, one night in 1494, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Vallabhacharya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> received the </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Brahmasambandha mantra</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">mantra</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> that binds one with </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Brahman</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, or Krishna) from </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Krishna</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> himself (hence the name, </span><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; line-height: 19px; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">mukhāvatāra</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) at </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gokula</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. The eight-syllable mantra, </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">śri kṛṣṇaḥ śaraṇaṃ mama</span></span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (Lord Krishna is my refuge), is passed onto new initiates in Vallabh sampradaya, and the divine name is said to rid the recipient of all impurities of the soul (</span><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; line-height: 19px; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">doṣas</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) .</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The school of in-essence <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">monism</span> or purified non-dualism of Vallabha sees equality in "essence" of the individual self with God. There is no real difference between the two (like the analogy of sparks to fire). However, unlike Shankara's Advaita, Vallabha does not deny God as the whole and the individual as the part. The individual soul is not the Supreme (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Satcitananda</span>) clouded by the force of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">avidya</span>, but is itself <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahman</span>, with one attribute (ananda) rendered imperceptible. The soul is both a doer and enjoyer. It is atomic in size, but pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like sandalwood makes its presence felt through its scent even if sandalwood can't be seen).</i></div>
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<i>Unlike Advaita, the world of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maya</span> is not regarded as unreal, since Maya is nothing else than a power of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ishvara</span>. He is not only the creator of the universe but is the universe itself. Vallabha cites the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brihadaranyaka Upanishad</span> account, that <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahman</span> desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world. Although Brahman is not known, He is known when He manifests Himself through the world.</i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bhakti</span> is the means of salvation, though <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Jnana</span> is also useful. Karmas precede knowledge of the Supreme, and are present even when this knowledge is gained. The liberated perform all karmas. The highest goal is not <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mukti</span> or liberation, but rather eternal service of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Krishna</span> and participation along with His activities in His Divine abode of Vrindavana. Vallabha distinguishes the transcendent consciousness of Brahman as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Purushottama</span>. Vallabha lays a great stress on a life of unqualified love and devotion towards God.</i></div>
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<i>In all the philosophical traditions, it is common practice to describe how the Supreme Entity Brahm is related to us and our surroundings. In the system of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Suddhadwait Vedant</span>, otherwise known as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahmvaad</span>, the One, secondless Ultimate Reality is the only category. Every other thing has proceeded from it at the time of creation, is non-different from it during creation and merges into it at the time of dissolution. The two other well known categories namely the animate souls and the inanimate objects are respectively its parts and modifications. The animate souls are its parts because they retain to some extent the essential qualities thereof namely consciousness and joy. The inanimate objects are its modification because the above said qualities are absent therein.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>According to the version of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vaishnava Theology</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vallabhacharya</span> espoused; the glorious <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Krishna</span> in His "<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Satcitananda</span>" form is the Absolute, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Svayam bhagavan</span>. He is permanently playing out His sport (leela) from His seat in the goloka which is even beyond the divine <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vaikuntha</span>, the abode of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vishnu</span>and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Satya-loka</span>, the abode of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahma</span> the Creator, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kailas</span>, the abode of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shiva</span>. Creation is His sport.</i></div>
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<i>Followers of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vallabhacharya</span> maintain that if one wants to obtain <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">moksha</span> and the bliss given by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Krishna</span>, the only path to do so is <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">bhakti</span>. In the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kali Yuga</span>, it is believed that the forms of bhakti mentioned in the scriptures are nearly impossible to practice, so the followers of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vallabhacharya</span>recommend pushti bhakti – which is the end itself and not means to an end, giving moksha, joy and oneness with Shree Krsna. It illustrates oneness with Shree Krsna can be achieved merely by having true belief and love for Shree Krsna and recitation of the Brahmasambandha mantra.</i></div>
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<i>It is that bhakti which gives itself up body, heart and soul to the cause of God. It is considered to be the fullest expression of what is known as Atma-nivedana (= giving-up of oneself) among the nine forms of bhakti (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Navadha Bhakti</span>). It is the bhakti of the devotee who worships God not for any reward or presents but for His own sake. Such a devotee goes to Goloka after leaving this body and lives in eternal bliss enjoying the sports of the Lord. The classical example of this complete self-effacement is that of the cow-herdesses towards <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Krishna</span>. They spoke no word except prayer and they moved no step except towards <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Krishna</span>. Their supreme-most meditation was on the lotus-feet of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Krishna</span>.Thus it is by God's grace alone that one can obtain release from bondage and attain Krishna's heaven, Goloka.</i></div>
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<i>Eight disciples of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vallabhacharya</span> are called the ashta-chaap (eight reprints). Foremost among them was <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Surdas</span>, the blind poet of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Agra</span>.</i></div>
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<i>These are Surdas, Krushnadas, Paramanand, Kumbhandas, Chaturbhuj, Nanddas, Chhitswami, Govinddas.</i></div>
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<i>Shuddhadwait is defined more thoroughly in verse 27-28 from Shuddhadwait Martand:</i></div>
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<i>शुद्धाद्वैतापदे ज्ञेय: समास: कर्मधारय: I</i></div>
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<i>अद्वैतं शुद्धयो: प्राहुः षष्ठी तत्पुरुषमं बुधा: II</i></div>
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<i>मायासंबंधरहितमं शुद्धमित्युच्यते बुधै: I</i></div>
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<i>कार्यकरणरूपमं हि शुद्धं ब्रह्म न मायिकम़् II <span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>"It is Karmdharay samaas : Shuddham ch tat adwaitam (The Pure and its non-dualism). Or, it is the Shashti Tatpurush samaas Shuddhyoh adwaitam (The Non-dual is pure). In this system, the combination of Maya with Brahm is done away with; therefore the cause of this world is not Brahm covered by Maya. But the pure Brahm and only pure Brahm is the effect and cause of this world."<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-10467321098803688062013-01-24T06:44:00.004-08:002013-01-24T06:47:02.560-08:00Vishishtadvaita<br />
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<i><b>Vishishtadvaita Vedanta</b> is a sub-school of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vedānta</span> (literally, end or the goal of Knowledge,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sanskrit</span>) school of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Hindu philosophy</span>, the other major sub-schools of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vedānta</span> being <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Advaita</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dvaita</span>, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Achintya-Bheda-Abheda</span>. VishishtAdvaita(literally "Advaita with uniqueness/qualifications") is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy. It is <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">non-dualism</span> of the qualified whole, in which Brahman alone exists, but is characterised by multiplicity. It can be described as <b>qualified monism/nondualism</b> or <b>attributive <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">monism</span></b>.</i></div>
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<i>Asesha Chit-Achit Prakaaram Brahmaikameva Tatvam - <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahman</span> as qualified by the sentient and insentient modes (aspects or attributes) is the only reality.</i></div>
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<i>It is a school of Vedanta philosophy which believes in all diversity subsuming to an underlying unity. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ramanuja</span>, the main proponent of Visishtadvaita philosophy contends that the Prasthana Traya ("The three courses") i.e. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Upanişads</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bhagavad Gītā</span>, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahma Sūtras</span> are to be interpreted in way that shows this unity in diversity, for any other way would violate their consistency.</i></div>
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<i>The VisishtAdvaitic thought is considered to have existed for a long time, and it is surmised that the earliest works are no longer available. The names of the earliest of these philosophers is only known through Ramanuja's <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Veda artha Sangraha</span>. In the line of the philosophers considered to have expounded the VisishtAdvaitic system, the prominent ones are Bodhayana, Dramida, Tanka, Guhadeva, Kapardi and Bharuci. Besides these philosophers, Ramanuja's teacher <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yamunacharya</span> is credited with laying the foundation for what culminates as the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sri Bhashya</span>.</i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bodhayana</span> is considered to have written an extensive vritti (commentary) on the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Purva</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Uttara Mimamsas</span>. Tanka is attributed with having written commentaries on <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chandogya Upanishad</span> and Brahma Sutras. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nathamuni</span> of the ninth century AD, the foremost <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Acharya</span> of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vaishnavas</span>, collected the Tamil <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">prabandhas</span>, classified them, made the redaction, set the hymns to music and spread them everywhere. He is said to have received the divine hymns straight from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nammalvar</span>, the foremost of the twelve <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alwars</span>, by yogic insight in the temple at Alwar Thirunagari, which is located near<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tirunelveli</span> in South <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">India</span>. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yamunacharya</span> renounced kingship and spent his last days in the service of the Lord at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Srirangam</span> and in laying the fundamentals of the Vishishtadvaita philosophy by writing four basic works on the subject.</i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ramanuja</span> is the main proponent of VisishtAdvaita philosophy. The philosophy itself is considered to have existed long before Ramanuja's time.<span style="line-height: 13px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span> Ramanuja continues along the line of thought of his predecessors while expounding the knowledge expressed in the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita. <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vedanta Desika</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pillai Lokacharya</span>, disciples in the tradition of Ramanuja, had minor disagreements not on the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">philosophy</span>, but on some aspects of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">theology</span>, giving rise to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vadakalai</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thenkalai</span> schools of thought, as explained below.</i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Swaminarayan</span>, the founder of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Swaminarayan Sampraday</span> (original name is Uddhav Sampraday) also propagated this philosophy and based the Swaminarayan Sampraday on these ideals.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Sri Dharma Pravartaka Acharya (1963 ->), founder of the International Sanatana Dharma Society, is also a follower of VisishtAdvaita philosophy.</i></div>
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<i>There are three key principles of VishishtAdvaita:</i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Tattva</b>: The knowledge of the 3 real entities namely, jIvA (the sentient); Jagat (the insentient) and Ishvara (Vishnu-Narayana or Parabrahman)</i></li>
</ul>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Hita</b>: The means of realisation i.e. through Bhakti (devotion) and Prapatti (self-surrender)</i></li>
</ul>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>PurushArtha</b>: The goal to be attained i.e. moksha or liberation from bondage.</i></li>
</ul>
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<i>Hinduism propounds that every living being, be it a human or animal, has a body and a soul(consciousness) and the bridge between the two is the mind(a mixture of both). If there is an imbalance between any of these three components it can result in illness and 'death'. 'Death' as we know it,is the ceasing of the body to function and therefore the soul which is immortal will have to migrate to another body and occupy some-other mind thereby creating consciousness there, be it a human or animal depending upon the 'karma' or 'past deeds' done in the previous physical body/bodies or life/lives. Central to the philosophy of Hinduism is 'BRAHMAN' which is the embodiment of all souls and therefore the ultimate consciousness. BRAHMAN is infinite, has no dimensions, and is embodiment of all knowledge and the absolute truth and therefore the ultimate bliss and enlightenment for all souls. To join BRAHMAN is the ultimate goal of all souls, a soul can only join BRAHMAN upon becoming perfect, until such time the soul will have to keep changing bodies and experience events based on its karma in-order to perfect itself and therefore - continues the cycle of birth and death. BRAHMAN is also the sum total of the trinity gods( and avatars) worshiped by Hindus viz. 1.Brahma-the creator 2. Vishnu-the protector 3. Shiva or Maheshwara -the destroyer. Brahma is responsible for sending the part of the BRAHMAN which was imperfect to perfect itself on earth and for that purpose created various levels of physical form. Vishnu who is the protector pronounces that one must perform ones DHARMA or duty or follow the laws in-order to obtain good karma and hence graduate to a high physical and mental form and finally join the ultimate BRAHMAN. 3. Maheshwara or Shiva is the god of destruction and 'death' says that just like how a new star can only be born upon the destruction of an old star which has been burning bright, just so do we find that only in complete destruction is there creation and that the ultimate truth,immortality and permanence is in the soul which joins the BRAHMAN and that physical matter is only recycled over and over again. A soul will have been successful when it stops getting recycled like how lowly and unconscious physical matter does. Therefore 'death' is not the end as the soul is immortal and endless.</i></div>
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<i>According to Ramanujacharya, Brahma creates physical form and Maheshwara or shiva destroys physical form, while Vishnu who is BRAHMAN shows us(the souls) the path or teaches us how to attain Moksha and join BRAHMAN by following the Dharmas of life. Therefore Ramanujan's Vishnavite followers believe that we are all flawed souls who are roaming earth in physical form and therefore are not god . All living beings are not god because they are here to pass the test of Dharma and Karma and only upon joining BRAHMAN will they become the embodiment of truth . These two reasons are the cause for rejecting the advaitha and dwaitha philosophy by Ramanujan followers. Ramanujan therefore believes that God or Vinshnu or BRAHMAN is the greatest and we are all mere mortals striving to achieve moksha.</i></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; font-size: small;"><i>Pramāṇas</i></span></h3>
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<i>Pramā, in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sanskrit</span>, refers to the correct knowledge, arrived at by thorough reasoning, of any object. (sources of knowledge, Sanskrit) forms one part of a <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">tripuṭi</span> (trio), namely,</i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Pramātṛ</span>, the subject; the knower of the knowledge</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Pramāṇa</span>, the cause or the means of the knowledge</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Prameya, the object of knowledge</i></li>
</ol>
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<i>In VisishtAdvaita Vedānta, the following three <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">pramāṇas</span> are alone accepted as valid means of knowledge:</i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Pratyakṣa</span> — the knowledge gained by means of perception</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Anumāna</span> — the knowledge gained by means of inference</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span class="Unicode" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">śabda</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"> — the knowledge gained by means of </span>Śruti</i></li>
</ul>
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<i>Perception refers to knowledge obtained by cognition of external objects based on sensory perception. In the modern day usage this will also include evidence obtained by means of observation through scientific instruments since they are only an extension of perception.</i></div>
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<i>Inference refers to knowledge obtained by deductive reasoning and analysis.</i></div>
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<i>Sruti refers to knowledge obtained from scriptures which primarily are Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita</i></div>
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<i>There are three rules of hierarchy when there is apparent conflict between the 3 modes of acquiring knowledge:</i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">śabda</span> or <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Śruti Pramāṇa</span> occupies the highest position in matters which cannot be settled or resolved by <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Pratyakṣa</span> or Anumāna.</i></li>
</ul>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Anumāna occupies the next position. When an issue cannot be settled through sensory perception alone, it is settled based on Anumāna i.e. whichever argument is more logical.</i></li>
</ul>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>When <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Pratyakṣa</span> yields a definitive position on a particular issue, such a perception cannot be ignored to interpret <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">śabda</span> in a way which violates that perception.</i></li>
</ul>
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<i>The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">ontology</span> in VishishtAdvaita consists of explaining the relationship between Ishvara (Parabrahman), the sentient beings (chit-brahman) and the insentient Universe (achit-brahman). In the broadest sense, Ishvara is the Universal Soul of the pan-organistic body consisting of the Universe and sentient beings. The description of the three ontological entities is given below:</i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ishvara</span> (denoted by Vishnu-Narayana) is the Supreme Cosmic Spirit who maintains complete control over the Universe and all the sentient beings, which together also form the pan-organistic body of Ishvara. The triad of Ishvara along with the universe and the sentient beings is Brahman, which signifies the completeness of existence. Ishvara is Parabrahman endowed with innumerable auspicious qualities (Kalyana Gunas). Ishvara is perfect, omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, creator of the universe, its active ruler and also the eventual destroyer. He is causeless, eternal and unchangeable — and is yet the material and the efficient cause of the universe and sentient beings. He is both immanent (like whiteness in milk) and transcendent (like a watch-maker independent of a watch). He is the subject of worship. He is the basis of morality and giver of the fruits of one's Karma. He rules the world with His Māyā — His divine power.</i></div>
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<i>Ishvara is considered to have a 2-fold characteristic: he is the indweller of all beings and all beings also reside in Ishvara.</i></div>
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<i>When Ishvara is thought of as the indweller of all beings, he is referred to as the paramātmān, or the innermost self of all beings.</i></div>
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<i>He who inhabits water, yet is within water, whom water does not know, whose body water is and who controls water from within—He is your Self, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.</i></div>
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<i>He who inhabits the sun, yet is within the sun, whom the sun does not know, whose body the sun is and who controls the sun from within—He is your Self, the Inner Controller, the Immortal -<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brihadaranyaka Upanishad</span> 3.7.4-14</i></div>
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<i>When Ishvara is thought of as the all encomposing and the residence of all beings i.e. all beings reside in Ishvara, he is referred to as the paramapurusha. The sentient beings and the insentient universe which form part of the pan-organistic body of Ishvara are encapsulated by Ishvara.</i></div>
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<i>Sarvam khalvidam Brahma <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chandogya Upanishad</span></i></div>
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<i>Isavasyam idam sarvam <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Isa Upanishad</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chit</span> is the world of sentient beings, or of entities possessing consciousness. It is similar to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Purusha</span> of Samkhya system. The sentient beings are called Jīvās and they are possessors of individual consciousness as denoted by "I". The scope of Chit refers to all beings with an "I" consciousness, or more specifically self-consciousness. Therefore all entities which are aware of their own individual existence are denoted as chit. This is called Dharmi-jnana or substantive consciousness. The sentient beings also possess varying levels of Dharma-bhuta-jnana or attributive consciousness</i></div>
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<i>The jivas possess three different types of existence:</i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Nityas, or the eternally free Jivas who were never in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Samsara</span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Muktas, or the Jivas that were once in Samsara but are free</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Baddhas, or the Jivas which are still in Samsara</i></li>
</ul>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Achit</span> is the world of insentient entities as denoted by matter or more specifically the non-conscious Universe. It is similar to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Prakriti</span> of Samkhya system</i></div>
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<i>There is a subtle difference between Ishvara and Brahman. Ishvara is the substantive part of Brahman, while jivas and jagat are its modes (also secondary attributes), and kalyanagunas (auspicious attributes) are the primary attributes. The secondary attributes become manifested in the effect state when the world is differentiated by name and form. The kalyanagunas are eternally manifest.</i></div>
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<i>Brahman is the description of Ishvara when comprehended in fullness– i.e., a simultaneous vision of Ishvara with all his modes and attributes.</i></div>
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<i>The relationship between Brahman and Jivas, Jagat is expressed by Rāmānujā in numerous ways. He calls this relationship as one of:</i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>sharIra/sharIrI (शरीर/ शरीरी)</b> (body/indweller);</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>prakAra/prakArI</b> (attribute or mode/substance);</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>shesha/sheshi</b> (Owned/owner);</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>amsha/amshI</b> (part/whole);</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>AdhAradeya/sambandha</b> (supporter/supported);</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>niyamya/niyanta</b> (controlled/controller);</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>rashksya/rakshaka</b> (redeemed/redeemer);</i></li>
</ul>
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<i>These relationships can be experienced holding Brahman as the father, son, mother, sister, wife, husband, friend, lover and lord. Hence, Brahman is a personal being.</i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>What does Nirguna Brahman mean?</i></li>
</ul>
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<i>Ramanuja argues vehemently against understanding Brahman as one without attributes. Brahman is Nirguna in the sense that impure qualities do not touch it. He provides three valid reasons for staking such a claim:</i></div>
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<i>Shruti/ Shabda Pramana: All shrutis and shabdas denoting Brahman always list either attributes inherent to Brahman or not inherent to Brahman. The shrutis only seek to deny Brahman from possessing impure and defective qualities which affect the world of beings. There is evidence in the shrutis to this regard. The shrutis proclaim Brahman to be beyond the tri-gunas which are observed. However, Brahman possesses an infinite number of transcendental attributes, the evidence of which is given in vakhyas like "satyam jnanam anantam Brahma" (Taittiriya Upanishad).</i></div>
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<i>Pratyaksha Pramana: Ramanuja states that "a contentless cognition is impossible". And all cognition must necessarily involve knowing Brahman through the attributes of Brahman.</i></div>
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<i>Anumana Pramana: Ramanuja states that "Nirgunatva" itself becomes an attribute of Brahman on account of the uniqueness of no other entity being Nirguna.</i></div>
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<i>The three ontological entities i.e. Ishvara, Chit and Achit are fundamentally real. It upholds the doctrine of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Satkaryavada</span> as against <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Asatkaryavada</span>.</i></div>
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<i>Briefly,</i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Satkaryavada is pre-existence of the effect in the cause. It maintains that karya (effect) is sat or real. It is present in the karana (cause) in a potential form, even before its manifestation.</i></li>
</ul>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Asatkaryavada is non-existence of the effect in the cause. It maintains that karya (effect) is asat or unreal until it comes into being. Every effect, then, is a new beginning and is not born out of cause.</i></li>
</ul>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>More specifically, the effect is a modification of what exists in the cause and does not involve new entities coming into existence. This is called as parinamavada or evolution of effect from the cause. This doctrine is common to the Samkhya system and Vishishtadvaita system. The Samkhya system adheres to Prakriti-Parinama vada whereas Vishishtadvaita is a modified form of Brahma-Parinama vada.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">kāraṇa</span> (cause) and <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">kārya</span> (effect) in Vishishtadvaita is different from other systems of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indian Philosophy</span>. Brahman is both the <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">kāraṇa</span>(cause) and the <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">kārya</span>(effect). Brahman as the cause<b>does not</b> become the Universe as the effect.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Brahman is assigned two <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">kāraṇatvas</span> (ways of being the cause):</i></div>
<ol style="list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Nimitta kāraṇatva</span> — Being the Efficient/ Instrumental cause. For example, a goldsmith is assigned <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Nimitta kāraṇatva</span> as he acts as the maker of jewellery and thus becomes the jewellery's Instrumental cause.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Upādāna kāraṇatva</span> — Being the material cause. For example, the gold is assigned <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Upādāna kāraṇatva</span> as it acts as the material of the jewellery and thus becomes the jewellery'smaterial cause.</i></li>
</ol>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>According to Vishishtadvaita, the Universe and Sentients always exist. However, they begin from a subtle state and undergo transformation. The subtle state is called a causal state, while the transformed state is called the effect state. The causal state is when Brahman is internally not distinguishable by name and form.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>It can be said that Vishishtadvaita follows <b>Brahma-Prakara-Parinama Vada</b>. That is to say, it is the modes (Jivas and Jagath) of Brahman which is under evolution. The cause and effect only refer to the pan-organistic body transformation. Brahman as the Universal Self is unchanging and eternal.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Brahman having the subtle (sūkshma) chit and achit entities as his Saareeram/Prakaaram(body/mode) before manifestation is the same Brahman having the expanded (stūla) chit and achit entities as Saareeram/Prakaaram(body/mode) after manifestation.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The essential feature is that the underlying entity is the same, the changes are in the description of that entity.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>For e.g. Jack was a baby. Jack was a small kid. Jack was a middle-aged person. Jack was an old man. Jack is dead</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The body of a single personality named Jack is described as continuously changing. Jack doesnot become "James" because of the change.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Souls and Matter are only the body of God. Creation is a real act of God. It is the expansion of intelligence. Matter is fundamentally real and undergoes real revelation. The Soul is a higher mode than Matter, because it is conscious. It is also eternally real and eternally distinct. Final release, that comes, by the Lord's <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Grace</span>, after the death of the body is a Communion with God. This philosophy believes in liberation through one's <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karmas</span> (actions) in accordance with the Vedas, the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Varna</span> (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">caste</span> or class) system and the four <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ashramas</span> (stages of life), along with intense devotion to Vishnu. Individual Souls retain their separate identities even after moksha. They live in Fellowship with God either serving Him or meditating on Him. The philosophy of this school is SriVaishnavism, a branch of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vaishnavism</span>.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>1. sarvam khalv idam brahma <b>from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chandogya Upanishad</span> 3.14.1</b></i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Translated literally, this means All this is Brahman. The ontology of Vishishtadvaita system consists of:</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>a. Ishvara is Para-brahman with infinite superlative qualities, whose substantive nature imparts the existence to the modes</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>b. Jivas are chit-brahman or sentient beings (which possess consciousness). They are the modes of Brahman which show consciousness.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>c. Jagat is achit-brahman or matter/Universe (which are non-conscious). They are the mode of Brahman which are not conscious.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Brahman is the composite whole of the triad consisting of Ishvara along with his modes i.e. Jivas and Jagat.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>2. ayam ātmā brahma <b>from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mandukya Upanishad</span> 1.2</b></i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Translated literally, this means the Self is Brahman. From the earlier statement, it follows that on account of everything being Brahman, the self is not different from Brahman.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>3. Tat tvam asi <b>from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chandogya Upanishad</span> 6.8.7</b></i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Translated literally, it means Thou art that</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>that here refers to Brahman and thou refers to jiva</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Rāmānujā chooses to take the position of universal identity. He interprets this passage to mean the subsistence of all attributes in a common underlying substratum. This is referred to assamānādhikaranya. Thus Rāmānujā says the purport of the passage is to show the unity of all beings in a common base. Ishvara (Parabrahman) who is the Cosmic Spirit for the pan-organistic body consisting of the Universe and sentient beings, is also simultaneously the innermost self (Atmān) for each individual sentient being (Jīvā). All the bodies, the Cosmic and the individual, are held in an adjectival relationship (aprthak-siddhi) in the one Isvara.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Tat Tvam Asi declares that oneness of Isvara.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>When multiple entities point to a single object, the relationship is established as one of substance and its attributes.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>For e.g. in a statement:</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Jack is a tall and intelligent boy</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The descriptors tall-ness,intelligence and boy-ness all refer to a common underlying Jack</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Similarly, when the upanishads declare Brahman is the Universe, Purusha, Self, Prana, Vayu, and so on, the entities are attributes or modes of Brahman.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>If the statement <b>tat tvam asi</b> is taken to mean as only the self is brahman, then <b>sarvam khalv idam brahma</b> will not make sense.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>This is an upanishadic concept which is employed while attempting to know Brahman. The purport of this exercise is understood in many different ways and also influences the understaning of Brahman. In the overall sense, this phrase is accepted to refer to the indescribable nature of Brahman who is beyond all rationalisations.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The typical interpretation of Neti-Neti is not this, not this or neither this, nor that. It is a phrase meant to convey the inexpressibility of Brahman in words and the futility of trying to approximate Brahman with conceptual models.In VisishtAdvaita, the phrase is taken in the sense of not just this, not just this or not just this, not just that. This means that Brahman cannot be restricted to one specific or a few specific descriptions. Consequently, Brahman is understood to possess infinite qualities and each of these qualities are infinite in extent.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The purpose or goal of human existence is called as PurushArtha. According to the Vedas, there are four goals namely Artha (wealth), kAma (pleasure), Dharma (righteousness) and Moksha (permanent freedom from worldly bondage). According to this philosophy, the first three goals are not an end by themselves but need to be pursued with the ideal of attaining Moksha.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Moksha is a state where the jiva achieves one-ness with Brahman in terms of all knowership and possessing qualities free from all worldly evils and defects.<span style="line-height: 13px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span></i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bhakti Yoga</span> is the sole means of liberation in Visishtadvaita. Through <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bhakti</span> (devotion), a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Jiva</span> ascends to the realm of the Lord, where it continues to delight in His service. Karma Yoga and Jnana Yoga are natural outcomes of Bhakti, total surrender, as the devotee acquires the knowledge that the Lord is the inner self. A devotee realizes his own state as dependent on, and supported by, and being led by the Lord, who is the Master. One is to lead a life as an instrument of the Lord, offering all his thought, word, and deed to the feet of the Lord. One is to see the Lord in everything and everything in Him. This is the unity in diversity achieved through devotion.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vedanta Desikan</span>, one of the foremost learned scholars of medieval India, wrote more than a hundred works in Sanskrit and Tamil. All are characterised by their versatility, deep spiritual insight, ethical fervour and excellent expressions of devotional emotion in delightful style. His <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Paduka-sahasram</span> is a classic example. He was a great teacher, expositor, debater, poet, philosopher, thinker and defender of the faith of Vaishnavism. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vadakalai</span> sect of Sri Vaishnavism associate themselves with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vedanta Desikan</span>.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pillai Lokacharya</span> literally meaning "Teacher for the whole world" is one of the leading lights on the Sri Vaishnava Vedanta philosophy. His work Sri Vachana Bhusanam is a classic and provides the essence of Upanishads. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tenkalai</span> sect of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sri Vaishnavism</span> looks up to him apart from Swami Ramanuja and Swami Manavala Mamuni. He was a senior contemporary of Vedanta Desika. He is said to have been born as an amsa ("essence") of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kanchi Devaraja (Varadaraja) Perumal</span> to document and immortalize Ramanuja's message in the month of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aippaci</span> under the star <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thiruvonam (Sravana)</span>, in the year 1205 CE. <span style="line-height: 13px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span>He is said to have lived for 106 years, during which time, he also helped to safeguard the idol of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ranganatha</span> at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Srirangam</span> from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Muslim</span> invaders<span style="line-height: 13px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span>. Pillai Lokacharya confirmed the basics of the Sri Vaishnava system in his 18 monumental works popularly known as Ashtadasa Rahasyangal ("the eighteen secrets") also called the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Rahasya granthas</span> ("doctrines that explain the inner meanings") out of which Sri Vachana Bhushanam and Mumukshuppadi are the most famous.<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Manavala Mamuni</span> expanded on and popularized Lokacharya's teachings arguments in Tamil.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The following are some of the differences between the two schools of thought <span style="line-height: 13px;">.</span></i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Some positive gesture is necessary on the part of the jeevatma to deserve the kripa of God, because He can be deemed partial if He grants Moksha to all both deserving and undeserving.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Thenkalai View</b> Lord's kripa is spontaneous. He grants Moksha to anyone who accepts Him alone as the means to attain it and has the ripened desire to attain it.</i></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(i) as to her being the means</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(ii) as to her being infinite</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(iii) as to her being Paramatma</i></dd></dl>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<b><i>Vadakalai View</i></b></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(i) She is the means for attaining salvation as much as the Lord Himself and also has the role of a mediator (Purushakara)</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(ii) She is infinite in nature (Vibhu) like the Lord Himself</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(iii) She is also Paramatma as much as the Lord Himself</i></dd></dl>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<b><i>Thenkalai View</i></b></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(i) Do not accept this position though they accept her recommendatory role as held by Vadakalais</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(ii) She is atomic in nature like other Jeevatmas</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(iii) She is a Jeevatma like any of us.</i></dd></dl>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<b><i>Vadakalai View</i></b></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(i) Accepted</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(ii) Kaivalya is eternal</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(iii) Kaivalya is situated Outside Paramapada</i></dd></dl>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<b><i>Thenkalai View</i></b></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(i) Kaivalya is inferior to Paramapada</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(ii) Kaivalya is not eternal</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(iii) Kaivalya is within Paramapada but in its outermost parts.</i></dd></dl>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Vadakalai View</b> Accept both as the direct means but Bhakti is more difficult and dilatory while Prapatti is easy and immediate</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Thenkalai View</b> Do not accept any means because Jeevatma is so utterly dependent as to be incapable of adopting either Bhakti or Prapatti as a means.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Vadakalai View</b> Prapatti has to be a positive specific act of surrender by the jeevatma to the Paramatma</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Thenkalai View</b> No positive, specific act is necessary. All that is required is</i></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(i) the knowledge of the Svarupa of the Jeevatma and</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>(ii) mental acceptance of the Lord's kripa in granting salvation</i></dd></dl>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><i>
Regarding sins</i></span></h3>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Vadakalai View</b> When a jeeva surrenders, the Lord forgives the sins committed by the jeevatma and grants Moksha.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Thenkalai View</b> The sins of a jeevatma is a source of joy for the Lord who relishes the same like a cow licking off the dirt on the body of its calf</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Vadakalai View</b> As compulsory duties are laid down by the Sastras which are the Lord's commandments, non- performance will tantamount to transgression of His commands (Ajna adhilangana) and will render the Prapanna liable for punishment</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Thenkalai View</b> To a highly evolved soul, non-performance of the compulsory duties is not an offence. But, they should continue to do them more for setting an example to the less evolved souls.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Which occur in the Charama sloka</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Vadakalai View</b> The Dharmas actually refer to the 32 Vidyas attaching to Bhaktiyoga which had already been given up by the jeeva due to incapacity and delay involved in observing them and the Lord offers to stand in their place.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Thenkalai View</b> This is literally interpreted to mean 'First, give up your duties and then take refuge in the Lord'</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Vadakalai View</b> One can have grief only when one cannot remove suffering of another. But, the Lord is capable of removing suffering. So, there is no need for Him to grieve. As Sri Rama, He shows to the World how a human would feel and how one should react on seeing the misery of others.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Thenkalai View</b> They hold that the Lord actually feels sorry on seeing the sufferings of souls and cite examples from Srimad Ramayana where Sri Rama is depicted as grieving over the misery of others.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Also atomic as well as gigantic in size as mentioned in the Vedas.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Vadakalai View</b> He is smaller than the atom in beings that are atomic in size. This is called 'Antar Vyapti' ( Immanence). He is also greater than the greatest in the sense He pervades and surrounds everything. This is called ' Bahir Vyapti'. (Transcendence)</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><b>Thenkalai View</b> His being atomic in atoms and enveloping even the biggest are all, done by what is known as 'Agatitha Ghatana Saamartya' - special powers enabling accomplishment of even the impossible.</i></div>
<div>
<i><span class="mw-headline"></span><br /></i>
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sri sampradaya</span> of south India.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sri Swaminarayan Sampraday</span> of Gujarat.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sri Ramanandi Sect</span> of Northern India.</li>
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<span class="mw-headline"><i>The Absolute Supreme Reality referred to as Brahman, is a Transcendent Personality. He is Narayana, also known as Lord Vishnu.</i></span></div>
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<i>A man who has discrimination for his charioteer and holds the reins of the mind firmly, reaches the end of the road; and that is the supreme position of Vishnu. - 1.3.9 <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Katha Upanishad</span></i></div>
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<i>Beyond the senses are the objects; beyond the objects is the mind; beyond the mind, the intellect; beyond the intellect, the Great Atman; beyond the Great Atman, the Unmanifest; beyond the Unmanifest, the Purusha. Beyond the Purusha there is nothing: this is the end, the Supreme Goal.- 1.3.10,11 <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Katha Upanishad</span></i></div>
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<i>In terms of theology, Ramanujacharya puts forth the view that both the Supreme Goddess Lakshmi and Supreme God Narayana together constitute Brahman - the Absolute. Sri Lakshmi is the female personification of Brahman and Narayana is the male personification of Brahman, but they are both inseparable, co-eternal, co-absolute and are always substantially one. Thus, in reference to these dual aspects of Brahman, the Supreme is referred to in the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya as Sriman Narayana.</i></div>
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<i>Narayana is the Absolute God. The Soul and the Universe are only parts of this Absolute and hence, Vishishtadvaita is <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">panentheistic</span>. The relationship of God to the Soul and the Universe is like the relationship of the Soul of Man to the body of Man. Individual souls are only parts of Brahman. God, Soul and Universe together form an inseparable unity which is one and has no second. This is the non-duality part. Matter and Souls inhere in that Ultimate Reality as attributes to a substance. This is the qualification part of the non-duality.</i></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-85931374249171623862013-01-20T06:23:00.003-08:002013-01-24T06:27:20.125-08:00Indo-Roman trade and relations<i><br /></i>
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<i><b style="line-height: 19px;">Roman trade with India</b><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (see also the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">spice trade</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">incense road</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) through the overland caravan routes via</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Anatolia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Persia</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, though at a relative trickle compared to later times, antedated the southern trade route via the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Red Sea</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and monsoons which started around the beginning of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Common Era</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (CE) following the reign of</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Augustus</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">his conquest</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Egypt</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in 30 BCE.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The route so helped enhance trade between ancient states of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">India</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Rome</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, that Roman politicians and historians are on record decrying the loss of silver and gold to buy silk to pamper Roman wives, and the southern route grew to eclipse and then totally supplant the overland trade route.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Roman and Greek traders frequented the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">ancient Tamil country</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (present day </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Southern India</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sri Lanka</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, securing trade with the seafaring </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Tamil</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> states of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Chola</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pandyan</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Chera</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> dynasties and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">establishing trading settlements</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> which secured trade with India by the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Greco-Roman world</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> since the time of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Ptolemaic dynasty</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> a few decades before the start of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Common Era</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and remained long after the fall of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Western Roman Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> They also outlasted </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Byzantium</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">'s loss of the ports of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Egypt</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Red Sea</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (ca. 639-645 CE) under the pressure of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Muslim conquests</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Sometime after the sundering of communications between the Axum and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Eastern Roman Empire</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in the 7th century, the Christian </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">kingdom of Axum</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> fell into a slow decline, fading into obscurity in western sources. It survived, despite pressure from Islamic forces, until the 11th century, when it was reconfigured in a dynastic squabble.</span></i></div>
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<i>The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Seleucid dynasty</span> controlled a developed network of trade with India which had previously existed under the influence of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Parthian Empire</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>The Greek Ptolemaic dynasty, controlling the western and northern end of other trade routes to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Southern Arabia</span> and India,<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> had begun to exploit trading opportunities with India prior to the Roman involvement but, according to the historian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Strabo</span>, the volume of commerce between India and Greece was not comparable to that of later Indian-Roman trade.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Periplus Maris Erythraei</span> mentions a time when sea trade between India and Egypt did not involve direct sailings.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>The cargo under these situations was shipped to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aden</span>:<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 10px; text-align: left;" valign="top" width="20"></td><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="top"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><i> Aden - Arabia Eudaimon was called the fortunate, being once a city, when, because ships neither came from India to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Egypt</span> nor did those from Egypt dare to go further but only came as far as this place, it received the cargoes from both, just as<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexandria</span> receives goods brought from outside and from Egypt.</i></b></span></td><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 10px; text-align: right;" valign="bottom" width="20"><i><br /></i></td></tr>
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<i>The Ptolemaic dynasty had developed trade with India using the Red Sea ports.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> With the establishment of Roman Egypt, the Romans took over and further developed the already existing trade using these ports.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>Prior to Roman expansion, India had established strong maritime trade with other countries. The dramatic increase in Indian ports, however, did not occur until the opening of the Red Sea by the Greeks and the Romans and the attainment of geographical knowledge concerning India’s seasonal monsoons. In fact, the first two centuries of the Common era indicate this increase in trade between western India and Rome. This expansion of trade was due to the comparative peace established by the Roman Empire during the time of Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), which allowed for new explorations. Thus, archeologists, with evidence from artifacts and ancient literature, suggest that a significant commercial relationship existed between ancient western India and Rome.</i></div>
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<i>The west coast of India has been mentioned frequently in foreign literature, such as the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Periplus Maris Erythraei</span>. The area was noted for its severe tidal currents, turbulent waves, and rocky sea-beds. Although many ships have attempted to sail outside it in order to prevent shipwrecks, many ships were still drawn inside the gulf. As a result of the difficulties, the entrance and departure of ships were dangerous for those who possessed little sea experience. The anchors of the ship would be caught by the waves and quickly cut off, which could overturn the ship or ultimately cause a wreck. Stone anchors have been observed near <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bet Dwarka</span>, an island situated in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gulf of Kachchh</span>, due to these frequent shipwrecks. More importantly, the number of discovered anchors and numerous artifacts suggest that Indo-Roman trade and commerce was significant during the early centuries of the Common era.</i></div>
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<i>Onshore and offshore explorations have been carried out around Bet Dwarka Island since 1983.The finds discovered include lead and stone objects buried in sediment and considered to be anchors due to their axial holes. Though it is unlikely that the remains of the shipwreck’s hull survived, offshore explorations in 2000 and 2001 have yielded seven differently-sized amphoras, two lead anchors, forty-two stone anchors of different types, a supply of potsherds, and a circular lead ingot. The remains of the seven amphoras were of a thick, coarse fabric with a rough surface, which was used for exporting wine and olive oil from the Roman Empire. Archeologists have concluded that most of these were wine amphoras, since olive oil was in less demand in India.</i></div>
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<i>Since the discoveries at Bet Dwarka are significant for the maritime history of India, archeologists have researched the resources in India.<span style="line-height: 13px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span>Despite the unfavorable conditions the island is situated in, the following items have made Bet Dwarka as well as the rest of western India an important place for trade. From Latin literature, Rome imported Indian tigers, rhinoceros, elephants, and serpents to use for circus shows - a method employed as entertainment to prevent riots in Rome. It has been noted in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Periplus</span> that Roman women also wore Indian pearls and used a supply of herbs, spices, pepper, lyceum, costus, sesame oil and sugar for food. Indigo was used as a color while cotton cloth was used as articles of clothing, Furthermore, India exported ebony for fashioned furniture in Rome. The Roman Empire also imported Indian lime, peach, and various other fruits for medicine. Western India, as a result, was the recipient of large amounts of Roman gold during this time.</i></div>
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<i>Since one must sail against the narrow gulfs of western India, special large boats were used and ship development was demanded. At the entrance of the gulf, large ships called trappaga and cotymba helped guide foreign vessels safely to the harbor. These ships were capable of relatively long coastal cruises, and several seals have depicted this type of ship. In each seal, parallel bands were suggested to represent the beams of the ship. In the center of the vessel is a single mast with a tripod base.</i></div>
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<i>Apart from the recent explorations, close trade relations as well as the development of ship building were supported by the discovery of several Roman coins. On these coins were depictions of two strongly constructed masted ships. Thus, these depictions of Indian ships, originating from both coins and literature (Pliny and Pluriplus), indicate India’s development in seafaring due to the increase in Indo-Roman commerce. In addition, the silver Roman coins discovered in western India primarily come from the 1st, 2nd, and 5th centuries. These Roman coins also suggest that India possessed a stable sea borne trade with Rome during 1st and 2nd century AD. Land routes, during the time of Augustus, were also used for Indian embassies to reach Rome.</i></div>
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<i>The discoveries found on Bet Dwarka and on other areas on the western coast of India strongly indicate that there were strong Indo-Roman trade relations during the first two centuries of the Common era. The 3rd century, however, was the demise of the Indo-Roman trade. The sea-route between Rome and India was shut down, and as a result, the trading reverted back to the time prior to Roman expansion and exploration.</i></div>
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<i>The replacement of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Greece</span> by the Roman empire as the administrator of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mediterranean</span> basin led to the strengthening of direct maritime trade with the east and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of various land based trading routes.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> Strabo's mention of the vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt indicates that monsoon was known and manipulated for trade in his time.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i> The trade started by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</span> in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according to Strabo </i></div>
<table class="cquote" style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-style: none; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: auto; width: auto;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 10px; text-align: left;" valign="top" width="20"></td><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="top"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><i>"At any rate, when <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gallus</span> was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nile</span> as far as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Syene</span> and the frontiers of<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kingdom of Aksum</span> (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ethiopia</span>), and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Myos Hormos</span> to India, whereas formerly, under the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemies</span>, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise."</i></b></span></td><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 10px; text-align: right;" valign="bottom" width="20"><i><br /></i></td></tr>
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<i>By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Myos Hormos</span> to India.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kushan Empire</span> (Kushans) for their own coinage, that <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pliny the Elder</span> (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 10px; text-align: left;" valign="top" width="20"></td><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="top"><i>"minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?"</i><br />
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<i>"India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">sesterces</span> from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what fraction of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?" - <small>Pliny, Historia Naturae </small></i></div>
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<i>There existed an exotic animal trade between <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">India Ocean</span> harbours and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mediterranean</span> harbours. The evidence of this we can to find in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">mosaics</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">frescoes</span> of the remains of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Roman villas</span> in<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Italy</span>. For example <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Villa del Casale</span> has mosaics depicting the capture of exotic animals in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">India</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indonesia</span> and in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Africa</span>. The intercontinental trade of exotic animals was one of the sources of richness of the owners of the villa. In the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial;">Ambulacro della Grande Caccia</span>, the hunting scenes and capture of live animals is well represented by such details that it is possible to identify the species. There is a scene that shows a technique to distract a mother <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tiger</span> in order to take her cubs by using a shimmering ball of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">glass</span> or <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">mirror</span>. It is also represented the hunt of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tiger</span> with red ribbons serving as a distraction. In the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">mosaic</span> there are also numerous other animals such as a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Rhinoceros</span>, an <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indian Elephant</span> (recognized from the ears) with his Indian conductor and the<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indian Peafowl</span>, along with other exotic birds. There are also numerous animal from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Africa</span>. We know from sources that lot of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tigers</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pantheras</span> as well as the Asian and African <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Lion</span> were used in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">arenas</span> or in circuses. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">European Lion</span> was already extinct. Probably the last that lived in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Balkan Peninsula</span> were hunted to stock <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">arenas</span>. The birds and monkeys entertained the guests of many villas. Also in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Villa del Tellaro</span> there is a mosaic with tiger in a jungle that is attacking a man with roman clothes, probably a careless hunter. The animals were transported in cages and loaded in a ship arrived to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexandria</span> harbour, all that is represented in the mosaic.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>The three main Roman ports involved with eastern trade were <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arsinoe</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Berenice</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Myos Hormos</span>. Arsinoe was one of the early trading centers but was soon overshadowed by the more easily accessible Myos Hormos and Berenice.</i></div>
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<span class="mw-headline"><i>The Ptolemaic dynasty exploited the strategic position of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Alexandria</span> to secure trade with India.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> The course of trade with the east then seems to have been first through the harbor of Arsinoe, the present day <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Suez</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>The goods from the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">East African</span> trade were landed at one of the three main Roman ports, Arsinoe, Berenice or Myos Hormos.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> The Romans repaired and cleared out the silted up canal from the Nile to harbor center of Arsinoe on the Red Sea.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> This was one of the many efforts the Roman administration had to undertake to divert as much of the trade to the maritime routes as possible.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></span></div>
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Arsinoe was eventually overshadowed by the rising prominence of Myos Hermos.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>The navigation to the northern ports, such as Arsinoe-Clysma, became difficult in comparison to Myos Hermos due to the northern winds in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gulf of Suez</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> Venturing to these northern ports presented additional difficulties such as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">shoals</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">reefs</span> and treacherous <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">currents</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
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Myos Hormos and Berenice appear to have been important ancient trading ports, possibly used by the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pharaonic</span> traders of ancient Egypt and the Ptolemaic dynasty before falling into Roman control.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
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The site of Berenice, since its discovery by Belzoni (1818), has been equated with the ruins near <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ras Banas</span> in Southern Egypt.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> However, the precise location of Myos Hormos is disputed with the latitude and longitude given in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ptolemy</span>'s <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Geography</span> favoring Abu Sha'ar and the accounts given in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">classical literature</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">satellite images</span> indicating a probable identification with Quesir el-Quadim at the end of a fortified road from<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Koptos</span> on the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nile</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> The Quesir el-Quadim site has further been associated with Myos Hormos following the excavations at el-Zerqa, halfway along the route, which have revealed <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">ostraca</span> leading to the conclusion that the port at the end of this road may have been Myos Hormos.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
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Indian ports</h3>
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<span class="mw-headline">In India, the ports of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Barbaricum</span> (modern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Karachi</span>), <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Barygaza</span>, Muziris in Kerala, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Korkai</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kaveripattinam</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arikamedu</span> on the southern tip of India were the main centers of this trade, along with <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kodumanal</span>, an inland city. The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Periplus Maris Erythraei</span> describes Greco-Roman merchants selling in Barbaricum "thin clothing, figured linens, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">topaz</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">coral</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">storax</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">frankincense</span>, vessels of glass, silver and gold plate, and a little wine" in exchange for "<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">costus</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">bdellium</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">lycium</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">nard</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">turquoise</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">lapis lazuli</span>, Seric skins, cotton cloth, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">silk</span> yarn, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">indigo</span>".<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>In Barygaza, they would buy wheat, rice, sesame oil, cotton and cloth.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></span></div>
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Trade with Barigaza, under the control of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indo-Scythian</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Western Satrap</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Nahapana</span> ("Nambanus"), was especially flourishing:<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
<table class="cquote" style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-style: none; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: auto; width: auto;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 10px; text-align: left;" valign="top" width="20"></td><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="top">There are imported into this market-town (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Barigaza</span>), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar, antimony, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, agate and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi. - <small>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, paragraph 49.</small></td><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 10px; text-align: right;" valign="bottom" width="20"></td></tr>
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<span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Muziris</span> is a lost port city in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">South Indian</span> state of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kerala</span> which was a major center of trade in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tamilakkam</span> between the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chera Empire</span>and the Roman Empire.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>Large hoards of coins and innumerable shards of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">amphorae</span> found in the town of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pattanam</span> have elicited recent archeological interest in finding a probable location of this port city.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></span></div>
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According to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Periplus</span>, numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris:<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 10px; text-align: left;" valign="top" width="20"></td><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="top"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>"Then come Naura and Tyndis, the first markets of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Damirica</span> (Limyrike), and then Muziris and Nelcynda, which are now of leading importance. Tyndis is of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kingdom of Cerobothra</span>; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same Kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia" - <small>The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 53-54</small></b></span></td><td style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-top: 10px; text-align: right;" valign="bottom" width="20"><br /></td></tr>
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The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Periplus Maris Erythraei</span> mentions a marketplace named Poduke (ch. 60), which G.W.B. Huntingford identified as possibly being<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Arikamedu</span> in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tamil Nadu</span>, a centre of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">early Chola</span> trade (now part of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ariyankuppam</span>), about 2 miles from the modern <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pondicherry</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>Huntingford further notes that Roman pottery was found at Arikamedu in 1937, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">archeological</span> excavations between 1944 and 1949 showed that it was "a trading station to which goods of Roman manufacture were imported during the first half of the 1st century AD".<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
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<span class="mw-headline">The Rome-India trade also saw several cultural exchanges which had lasting effect for both the civilizations and others involved in the trade. The<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ethiopian</span> kingdom of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aksum</span> was involved in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indian Ocean</span> trade network and was influenced by Roman culture and Indian architecture.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>Traces of Indian influences are visible in Roman works of silver and ivory, or in Egyptian cotton and silk fabrics used for sale in <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Europe</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> The Indian presence in Alexandria may have influenced the culture but little is known about the manner of this influence.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Clement of Alexandria</span> mentions the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Buddha</span> in his writings and other <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indian religions</span> find mentions in other texts of the period.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></span></div>
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Even <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">China</span> was involved in the Roman trade with eastern Asia:</div>
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During the reign of the Roman emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century AD, traders reached Siam (now Thailand), Cambodia, Sumatra, Java, and a few seem to have penetrated northward to the coast of China. In AD 161, according to Chinese records, an "embassy" came from the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius to the emperor Huan-ti, bearing goods that Huan-ti gratefully received as "tribute".<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
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<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Christian</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Jewish</span> settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the decline in bilateral trade.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>Large hoards of Roman coins have been found throughout India, and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of the south.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>The Tamilakkam kings reissued Roman coinage in their own name after defacing the coins in order to signify their sovereignty.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> Mentions of the traders are recorded in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tamil</span> <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sangam literature</span> of India.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>One such mention reads: "The beautiful warships of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Yavanas</span> came to the prosperous and beautiful Muchiri (<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Muziris</span>) breaking the white foams of '<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chulli</span>', the big river, and returned with 'curry' (kari, the black pepper) paying for it in gold.(from poem no. 149 of 'Akananuru' of Sangam Literature)"<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
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Following the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Roman-Persian Wars</span>, the areas under the Roman <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Byzantine Empire</span> were captured by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Khosrow II</span> of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Persian</span>Sassanian Dynasty,<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> but the Byzantine emperor <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Heraclius</span> reconquered them (628). The Arabs, led by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">'Amr ibn al-'As</span>, crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640 CE.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>This advance marked the beginning of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Islamic conquest of Egypt</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> and the fall of ports such as Alexandria,<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> used to secure trade with India by the Roman world since the Ptolemaic dynasty.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
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The decline in trade saw the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">ancient Tamil country</span> turn to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Southeast Asia</span> for international trade, where it influenced the native culture to a greater degree than the impressions made on Rome.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>However, knowledge of India and it's trade was preserved in Byzantine books and it is likely that the court of the emperor still maintained some form of diplomatic relation to India up until at least the time of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Constantine VII</span>, seeking an ally against the rising influence of the Islamic states in the Middle East and Persia, appearing in a work on ceremonies called <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">De Ceremoniis</span>.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></div>
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The <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ottoman Turks</span> conquered <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Constantinople</span> in the 15th century (1453), marking the beginning of Turkish control over the most direct trade routes between Europe and Asia.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>The Ottomans initially cut off eastern trade with Europe, leading in turn to the attempt by Europeans to find a sea route around Africa, spurring the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Age of Discovery</span>, and the eventual rise of<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mercantilism</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Colonialism</span>.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-53738139179687508262013-01-20T06:02:00.003-08:002013-01-24T06:34:43.230-08:00 Kashi Math<i><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19px;"><b> </b></span></span><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Kashi Math</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> is one of the four spiritual schools followed by </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Goud Saraswat Brahmins or Gowda Saraswat Brahmins (GSB)</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">. Members of the Goud Saraswat community predominantly live along the west coast of India, from </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mumbai</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> in the north to </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kerala</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> in the south. It is one of the 24 </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">mathas</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> of the </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Dvaita</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> order. Headquartered in Brahma Ghat, </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Varanasi</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, Kashi Math has followers all over the Konkan belt, prominently in</span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Udupi</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mangalore</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kochi</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Alappuzha</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> and other parts of </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kerala</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Karnataka</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">.</span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Kashi Math was founded in 1542 AD.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Before the Kashi Math was established, most Vaishnava Gowd Saraswat Brahmins were followers of the Shri Kavindra Math of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Madhvacharya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. During the 15th century, Sri Ramachandra Tirtha of Moola Math (Jagadguru Sriman Madhwacharya Moola Maha Samsthana) </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">initiated two shishyas</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> as </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">sannyasins</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">: Vibhudendra Tirtha and Vidyanidhi Tirtha. The latter started a new math called </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Uttaradi Math</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and became head of the same, while Sri Vibhudendra Tirtha continued Parampara of Sri Ramachandra Tirtha, main parampara of Sriman Madhwacharya, now named Sri </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Raghavendra</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Math or </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Raghavendra</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Mantralaya after Sri </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Raghavendra</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> of Mantralaya. Due to their proximity to South Kanara and Kerala.</span></i></div>
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<i>Later, when Surendra Tirtha became the head of the Math at Kumbhakonam (Mula Matha), one of his disciples, Vijayindra Tirtha undertook a Chaturmasya (a religious event lasting four months) at <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kochi</span> in 1539–1540. Here, he selected Sri Vittalacharya and was given deeksha as Yadavendra Tirtha. Yadavendra Tirtha went on to become head of the new Kashi Math at Varanasi established in 1542 AD. Kumbhakonam Math gave two idols of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vyasa</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Rama</span> (Raghupati) to Shrimat Yadavendra Tirtha along with the rights to guide the Gowd Saraswats.</i></div>
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<i>Main Deities of Samsthan Kashi Math are charaprathishta (literally, a moving installation) idols of Lord Shri Veda Vyasa and Lord Shri Rama (Raghupati) also popularly known as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sree Vyasa Raghupathi</span>.</i></div>
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<i>The Kashi Math follows a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Guru</span> system, wherein the head of the Math appoints a <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">shishya</span>, who succeeds the Guru. According to the Math's tradition, the shishya should be unmarried, and is selected at a very young age.</i></div>
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<i>Shri Kashi Math are followers of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Dwaita</span> school of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vaishnavite</span> philosophy founded by <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Maadhwacharya</span>, but subtle differences exist between the Maadhwa Siddantha followed by Sri Kashi Math and the main-line Maadhwa followers.</i></div>
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<i>The spiritual head, or the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mathadipathi</span> is the administrative head of the math and its properties. As a math specific to the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gowd Saraswat Brahmins</span> , the mathadhipathi seldom mingle with members of other communities. The mathadhipathi is not a mere spiritual head of the community. In the past, the mathadhipathi exercised powers over secular matters of the community too. There have been occasions when the mathadhipathi has excommunicated members for violation of his edicts.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The 20th Mathadhipathi of the Kashimath H. H. Sudhindra Thirtha Swamiji enjoys iconic stature among his devotees and is a great scholar of the Vedas and ancient scriptures. He has sought to preserve protect and propagate the vedic heritage through His discourses over several years and the institutions found by Him. His illustrious predecessor Mahaswami H.H. Sukrateendra Thirtha attained </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Samadhi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> in 1949. Thereafter Shrimad Sudhindra Thirtha swamiji has been guiding the Samsthan and its devotees by travelling the width and breadth of India and beyond the Himalayas in Nepal by word and deed. There has not been a single day when the pujas to the presiding deities of Shri Vedavyasa and Shri Raghupathi [Lord Sreeram] were missed. Shri Vyasashram at Haridwar on the bank of sacred Ganga which was built in 1988 as monument to Lord Vedavyasa was dedicated by Swamiji for the welfare of the world. In 1998 at Kalpi near Kanpur (U.P) the birthplace of Vedavyasa a beautiful temple has been built to symbolise and propagate the universal philosophy of Shri Vedavyasa.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>As Per Tradition of math it was belived that the swamiji who is having paraphernalia and main deities of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sree Vyasa Raghupathi</span>. Upto 19th Pontiff linage (ie. Up to H.H.Sukratheendra Thirtha Swamiji) of Kashi Math Guruparampara; Guru Swamiji was holding and offering Poojas & Prayer to paraphernalia and main deities of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sree Vyasa Raghupathi</span>. Also Only After the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Samadhi</span> of Guru Swamiji, Shishya Swamiji was becoming Mathadhipathi.</i></div>
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<i>But on 04-11-1994,due to heath problems, H H Sudhindra Thirtha Swamiji handed over the Administrative power of math along with paraphernalia and main deities of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sree Vyasa Raghupathi</span> to H H Raghavendra Thirtha Swamiji and left to Haridwar for Swadhyaya and for writng a few compositions in Sanskrit.</i></div>
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<i>His Holiness RaghavendraThirtha Swamiji, is the 21st Pontiff of Shree Kashi Mutt Samsthan. H. H. Swamiji is the <b>only</b> shishya of H.H.Shrimad Sudhindra Thirtha Swamiji and Utaradhikari of Kashi Math Samsthan.</i></div>
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<i>Shrimad Sudhindra Thirtha Swamiji used to say the following statements in many congregations: We named our able successor as Shrimad Raghavendra Thirtha Swamiji like the Manthralaya Mutt Shrimad Sudhindra Thirtha Swamiji named their able successor as Shrimad Raghavendra Thirtha swamiji. Manthralaya Mutt Shrimad Raghavendra Thirtha Swamiji earned fame by the powers they possessed.We Forsee the same in our sucessor Srimad Raghavendra Thirtha by seeing thier Natal Charts.Earlier,In Shree Kashi Mutt Samsthan too,We had one swamiji H.H. Shrimad Raghavendra Thirtha swamiji as the 5th Matadhipathi in the pontifical lineage. Their contribution to this Samsthan and the followers is enormous.</i></div>
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<i>Shrimad Vibhudendra Tirtha was the fourteenth Swamiji of the Kashi Matha Samsthan, initiated two shishyas into sanyasa namely Shrimad Sumateendra Tirtha & Shrimad Vibhudendra Tirtha. Some time after the passing away of Shrimad Vibhudendra Tirtha Swamiji, a difference of opinion arose between his two Shishya-Swamijis. It went to such an extent that the younger Swamiji, Shrimad Vasudendra Tirtha demanded the division of all the movable and immovable properties of the Kashi Matha as well as the followers of the Matha and filed a suit in the Calicut court to that effect. The two shishyas being the official and legal heirs of the entire Kashi Matha, the court agreed with the younger Swamiji and issued the necessary decree for the division of the Math. In the mean time Shrimad Sumateendra Tirtha, selected a minor from his followers and initiated him into sanyasa on 1849 and accepted him as shishya, who was named <b>shrimad Bhuvanendra Tirtha</b> and attained samadhi in 1851. In the meantime Shrimad Vasudendra Tirtha was camping in Shri Venkataramana Temple, Kundapura. He was about to get the decree enforced, thereby dividing the Matha into two Mathas and also to select a Shishya. It was at this time that news reached the Swamiji that his co-Shishya, Shrimad Sumateendra Tirtha, attained <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Samadhi</span> in Alleppey. His Shishya, being a minor, a question arose as to who would be his guardian. The minor promptly and with great foresight requested Shrimad Vasudendra Tirtha to be his guardian.Now the latter obliged. Further, he gave up the idea of division of the Kashi Matha and even went a step further. He voluntarily and with a broad mind delegated all his rights to his share of the property of the Kashi Matha sanctioned to him earlier by the court decree mentioned earlier, to his ward, the minor Swamiji. He did not proceed with his plans regarding the initiation of some one into sanyasa and accepting him as his shishya.</i></div>
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<i>It is belived that in order to avoid similar conflict in Kashi Math in future, <b>shrimad Bhuvanendra Tirtha</b> have made an unchangeable Amendment in the constitution of Kashi Math. As per this Amendment <b>Mathadhipathi of Kashi Math can initiate only one vatu into Sanyasa and he will be the Shishya Swamiji and the Utharadhikari of the Math. Mathadhipathi of kashi math cannot initiate more than one vatu into sanyasa</b>.</i></div>
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<b><i>Hence as per Guru Parampara, Constituion of Math and Amendment by shrimad Bhuvanendra Tirtha Swamiji , Shrimad Raghavendra Thirtha Swamiji is the Shishya Swamiji and Utharadhikari of Kashi Math.</i></b></div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Guru_Parampara" style="font-size: small;"><i>Guru Parampara</i></span></h2>
<table class="wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 1em;"><thead>
<tr><th rowspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" width="20px"><i>SL No</i></th><th rowspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" width="180px"><i>Name</i></th><th rowspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" width="170px"><i>Purvashrama Name</i></th><th colspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>Birth (A.D)</i></th><th colspan="3" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>Ashrama Sveekar</i></th><th colspan="3" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Samadhi</i></th><th rowspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" width="30px"><i>Ref</i></th></tr>
<tr><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="70px"><i>Date</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Place</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="70px"><i>Date</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="2px"><i>Age</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Place</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="70px"><i>Date</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="2px"><i>Age</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Place</i></th></tr>
</thead><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>1</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Yadavendra Thirtha - 1</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Cochin</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1539</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Banaras</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>26-06-1608</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>80-90</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Bhatkal</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>2</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Keshavendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Rama Bhat</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1583</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>27-02-1670</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>87</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Basrur</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>3</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Upendra Thirtha - 1</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Anantha Bhat</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>24-10-1674</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Banaras</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>4</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Yadavendra Thirtha - 2</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Hanumanta Bhat</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1629</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>15-09-1711</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>82</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Hemmady</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>5</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Raghavendra Thirtha - 1</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Narayana Bhat</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1646</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>15-02-1725</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>79</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Banaras</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>6</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Devendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1740</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Bantwal</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>7</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Madhavendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>01-08-1775</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Walkeshwar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>8</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Jnaneendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1760</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Nasik</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>9</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Yadavendra Thirtha - 3</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>10-03-1773</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Honnavar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>10</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Upendra Thirtha - 2</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>02-12-1791</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Banaras</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>11</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Rajendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>30-05-1799</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Thuravur</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>12</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Sureendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>04-01-1778</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>16-06-1831</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Alappuzha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>13</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Vishnu Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Banaras</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>14</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Vibhudendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>21-03-1782</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>27-02-1834</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>52</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Manjeshwar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>15</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Sumatheendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>29-10-1798</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>15-03-1815</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>16</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>31-01-1851</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>52</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Alappuzha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>16</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Vasudendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Abbaya Bhat</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1832</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Manjeshwar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>16-05-1859</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Manjeshwar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>17</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Bhuvanendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Narasimha Kammath</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>21-06-1837</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Pallipuram</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>25-1-1851</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>12</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Alappuzha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>26-11-1886</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>49</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Basrur</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>18</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Varadendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Giri Mallya</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1866</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>06-06-1876</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>10</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Manjeshwar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>24-06-1914</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>48</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Walkeshwar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>19</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Sukratheendra Thirta</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Sreenivasa Prabhu</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>26-03-1897</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Cochin</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>16-08-1912</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>15</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Tiruchirapalli</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>10-07-1949</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>52</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Cochin</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>20</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Sudhindra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Sadhasiva Shenoy</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>31-03-1926</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ernakulam</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>24-05-1945</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>18</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Mulki</i></td><td colspan="3" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>Present <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mathadipathi</span></i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>21</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Raghavendra Thirtha - 2</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Shivananda Pai</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>05-08-1972</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ernakulam</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>07-07-1989</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>17</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Banaras</i></td><td colspan="3" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>Utharadhikari</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
</tbody><tfoot></tfoot></table>
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><i>
Internal strife in Kashi Math</i></span></h2>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><i>1834 - 1851</i></span></h3>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Shrimad Vibhudendra Tirtha was the fourteenth Swamiji of the Kashi Matha Samsthan.The Swamiji had initiated a vatu into sanyasa and called him Shrimad Sumateendra Tirtha on 15 March 1815. Later when the Guru Swamiji was camping in Manjeshwara in 1834, the Shishya-Swamiji was in Kochi. The Swamiji felt that his end was near and immediately sent for his Shishya Swamiji. However, due to the non-availability of suitable, rapid transport facilities, the Shishya-Swamiji could not come to Manjeshwara in time. In order to ensure the continuity of the pujas of the deities of the Kashi Matha Samsthan, the Guru-Swamiji initiated one Abbayya (perhaps Bhat), a scholarly vaidika of the retinue of the Swamiji and named him Shrimad Vasudendra Tirtha and attained Maha Samadhi on 27 February 1834. His Vridavana is in the Kashi Matha premises in Manjeshwara.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Some time after the passing away of Shrimad Vibhudendra Tirtha Swamiji in 1834, a difference of opinion arose between his two Shishya-Swamijis. It went to such an extent that the younger Swamiji, Shrimad Vasudendra Tirtha demanded the division of all the movable and immovable properties of the Kashi Matha as well as the followers of the Matha and filed a suit in the Calicut court to that effect.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The two shishyas being the official and legal heirs of the entire Kashi Matha, the court agreed with the younger Swamiji and issued the necessary decree for the division of the Matha. But before enforcing the different provisions of the decree two events happened, which prevented the changing course of the history of the Kashi Math.</i></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Firstly, the elder Swamiji, Shrimad Sumateendra Tirtha, selected a minor from his followers and initiated him into sanyasa on 1849 and accepted him as shishya, who was named shrimad Bhuvanendra Tirtha</i></li>
</ul>
</dd></dl>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Secondly, the elder Swamiji, Shrimad Sumateendra Tirtha, attained <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Samadhi</span> on 31 st January, 1851 in Shri Venkatapati Temple, Alleppy, where his Vrindavana is situated. When this happened, Shrimad Bhuvanendra Tirtha was still a minor.</i></li>
</ul>
</dd></dl>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>In the meantime Shrimad Vasudendra Tirtha was camping in Shri Venkataramana Temple, Kundapura. He was about to get the decree enforced, thereby dividing the Matha into two Mathas and also to select a Shishya. It was at this time that news reached the Swamiji that his co-Shishya, Shrimad Sumateendra Tirtha, attained <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Samadhi</span> in Alleppey. His Shishya, being a minor, a question arose as to who would be his guardian. The minor promptly and with great foresight requested Shrimad Vasudendra Tirtha to be his guardian.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Now the latter obliged. Further, he gave up the idea of division of the Kashi Matha and even went a step further. He voluntarily and with a broad mind delegated all his rights to his share of the property of the Kashi Matha sanctioned to him earlier by the court decree mentioned earlier, to his ward, the minor Swamiji. He did not proceed with his plans regarding the initiation of some one into sanyasa and accepting him as his shishya.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><br /></i>
<i>For reasons not fully known, serious differences between the Senior Pontiff Sudhindra Thirtha and the then Junior Pontiff Raghavendra Thirtha came to light around 2000-2001 amidst charges of the disciple’s insubordination and questions to his integrity for the role. On July 19 2000, the senior pontiff relinquished the junior of his position including all the rights, obligations and responsibilities of the Math through a formal proclamation based on an earlier communication from Raghavendra Thirtha in 1999 November requesting relief from the tutelage. <span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>Thereafter the tussle among the pontiffs turned into a dispute over the control of the Kashi Math and the ownership of the ‘parikaras’ (relics) of the Kashi Math including about 234 pieces of jewellery and silver articles and 27 idols including the the deity of main idol Vyasa Raghupathi that were in the possession of junior pontiff. After prolonged judicial proceedings, the District Court in Tirupathi gave the verdict favouring the senior pontiff. The court upheld the status of the senior pontiff as the ‘Matadhipathi’, accepted the junior’s abdication and directed him to return all belongings of the Math and refrain from interfering in its affairs. A petition seeking a stay on the order was dismissed by the Andhra Pradesh high court. The Supreme Court of India also confirmed the same on December 2, 2009 and upheld the High Court order recognizing Senior Swamiji Sudheendra Theertha as the legitimate head of the Math.<span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> The Supreme Court of India in 2010 rejected the Special Leave Petition of Kashi Math Junior Swamiji Raghavendra Theertha and upheld the High Court order recognizing Senior Swamiji Sudheendra Theertha as the legitimate head of the Math. <span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> After months of evading multiple court orders including the order of Hon’ble District Court, Ernakulam dated 19.8.2011 to surrender the ‘parikaras’, the junior pontiff Raghavendra Theertha absconded with the relics and was finally arrested at Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh in October 2011. <span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span>Thereafter in November 2011, the ‘parikaras’ were handed over to Sudhindra Thirtha, the senior pontiff and head of the Kashi Math. <span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span> In 2012, the junior pontiff Raghavendra Theertha has again made an appeal in the Andhra Pradesh High Court challenging the Supreme Court Order. <span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
</div>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Branches.2FAshrams_under_direct_administration_of_Kashi_Math" style="font-size: small;"><i>Branches/Ashrams under direct administration of Kashi Math</i></span></h3>
<table class="wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 1em;"><thead>
<tr><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="5px"><i>SL No</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="170px"><i>Name</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="70px"><i>State</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="100px"><i>District</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Founded</i><br />
<i>(A.D)</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="150px"><i>Founder</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Renovated</i><br />
<i>(A.D)</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="150px"><i>Renovator</i></th></tr>
</thead><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Varanasi</i><br />
<i>(Head Quarters)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Uttar Pradesh</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Varanasi</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;">Cochin GSBs</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>2</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Walkeshwar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Maharashtra</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Walkeshwar</i><br />
<i>(Mumbai)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Madhavendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1937</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Sukratheendra Thirtha</i></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>3</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Dahisar</i><br />
<i>(Vittal Rukumai Mandir)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Maharashtra</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Dahisar</i><br />
<i>(Mumbai)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>4</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Vashi</i><br />
<i>(Sri Balaji Mandir)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Maharashtra</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Dahisar</i><br />
<i>(Mumbai)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>5</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Nasik</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Maharashtra</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Nasik</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1994</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>6</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Nagpur</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Maharashtra</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Nagpur</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>7</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Khed</i><br />
<i>(Shende Wadi)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Maharashtra</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Khed</i><br />
<i>(Ratnagiri Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>8</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Banglore</i><br />
<i>(Parthasarathi Mandir)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Banglore</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>9</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Basrur</i><br />
<i>(Sri Venkataramana Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Basrur</i><br />
<i>(Udupi Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Keshavendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>10</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math -Hemmady</i><br />
<i>(Sri Gopinatha Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Hemmady</i><br />
<i>(Udupi Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Keshavendra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>11</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Karkala</i><br />
<i>(Sri Venkataramana Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karkala</i><br />
<i>(Udupi Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>12</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Kota</i><br />
<i>(Sri Gopalakrishna Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kota</i><br />
<i>(Udupi Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>13</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Nayampalli</i><br />
<i>(Sri Gopalakrishna Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Nayampalli</i><br />
<i>(Udupi Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>14</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Hangarkatta</i><br />
<i>(Sri Ram Mandir)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Hangarkatta</i><br />
<i>(Udupi Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>15</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Shirva</i><br />
<i>(Sri Mahalasa Narayani Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Shirva</i><br />
<i>(Udupi Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>16</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Naravi</i><br />
<i>(Sri Venugopal Krishna Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Naravi</i><br />
<i>(Udupi Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>17</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Bhatkal</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Bhatkal</i><br />
<i>(U K Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Yadhavendra Thirtha - 1</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>18</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Bantwal</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i><br /></i>
<i>(D K Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>19</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Bantwal</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i><br /></i>
<i>(D K Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>20</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Surathkal</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Surathkal</i><br />
<i>(D K Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>21</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Konchady</i><br />
<i>(Sri Venkataramana Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Konchady</i><br />
<i>(D K Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>22</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Bhagamandala</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Karnataka</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Bhagamandala</i><br />
<i>(Kondagu Dist.)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>23</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Ambalamedu</i><br />
<i>(Sri Kuladevata Mandir Complex)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kerala</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ambalamedu</i><br />
<i>(Cochin)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1992</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Sudhindra Thirtha &</i><br />
<i>Raghavendra Thirtha - 2</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>24</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Pallipuram</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kerala</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Pallipuram</i><br />
<i>(Cochin)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>25</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Manjeshwar</i><br />
<i>(Anantheswar Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kerala</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Manjeshwar</i><br />
<i>(Kasaragod)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>26</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Alappuzha</i><br />
<i>(Old Tirumala Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kerala</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Alappuzha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>27</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Calicut</i><br />
<i>(Sri Panduranga Mandir)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kerala</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>West Hill</i><br />
<i>Calicut</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Raghavendra Thirtha - 2</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>28</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Rameshwaram</i><br />
<i>(Sri Kodanda Rama Temple)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Tamilnadu</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Rameshwaram</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>29</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Chennai</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Tamilnadu</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Chennai</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>30</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Goa</i><br />
<i>(Bandora, Ponda)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Goa</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Bandora, Ponda</i><br />
<i>Goa</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>31</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Tirumala</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Andra Pradesh</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Tirumala</i><br />
<i>(Upper Tirupati)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
</tbody><tfoot></tfoot></table>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<i style="font-size: medium;">Branches/Ashrams under direct administration of Sri Sri Vyasa Prasana Raghavendra Charitable Trust</i></h3>
<table class="wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 1em;"><thead>
<tr><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="5px"><i>SL No</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="200px"><i>Name</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="70px"><i>State</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="100px"><i>District</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Founded</i><br />
<i>(A.D)</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="150px"><i>Founder</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Renovated</i><br />
<i>(A.D)</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="150px"><i>Renovator</i></th></tr>
</thead><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Elamakara</i><br />
<i>Dwaraka Kala Mandhir</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kerala</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Ernakulam(Kochi)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>2004</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Raghavendra Thirtha - 2</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>-</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>-</i></td></tr>
</tbody><tfoot></tfoot></table>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<i style="font-size: medium;">Branches/Ashrams under direct administration of Sri Vedavyasa Charitable Trust</i></h3>
<table class="wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 1em;"><thead>
<tr><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="5px"><i>SL No</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="200px"><i>Name</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="70px"><i>State</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="100px"><i>District</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Founded</i><br />
<i>(A.D)</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="150px"><i>Founder</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="60px"><i>Renovated</i><br />
<i>(A.D)</i></th><th class="headerSort" scope="col" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 21px; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="150px"><i>Renovator</i></th></tr>
</thead><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>1</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Haridwar</i><br />
<i>Vyasasram</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Uttar Pradesh</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Haridwar</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Sudindra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>2</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Prayag</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Uttar Pradesh</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Prayag</i><br />
<i>(Allahabad)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>3</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kashi Math - Kalpi</i><br />
<i>(Bala Vedavyasa Mandir)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Uttar Pradesh</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Kalpi</i><br />
<i>(Jalaun Dist,)</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>Sudindra Thirtha</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.7em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
</tbody><tfoot></tfoot></table>
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<i style="font-size: medium;">Samadhi</i></h2>
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<i style="font-size: medium;">Vrindavan</i></h3>
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<i>According to a custom followed in the Kashi Math , after Swamiji passes away, the mortal remains of the departed Swamiji are buried in the earth after suitably embalming the body with preservatives - salt, camphor, heaps of Tulsi leaves etc. - usually in the Math premises or in temples associated with the Math. Subsequently, a memorial structure is constructed over the site and an idol of Lord Hanuman is installed. A sacred Tulsi plant is then planted in front of the idol, the underlying principle being that the soul of the departed Swamiji reaches Lord Hari (supposed to have his divine presence near a Tulsi plant), through Mukhya Prana (Hanuman). The entire place is known as the Vrindavana or Samadhi of the Swamiji. Arrangements are made for the daily pujas in the Vrindavana and the Punya Tithi (death anniversary) of the Swamiji is duly celebrated with special pujas and prayers and Abhishekam to the Hanuman idol for his blessing to the Matha Samsthan and its followers.</i></div>
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<i style="font-size: medium;">Jala Samadhi</i></h3>
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<i>According to a custom followed in the Kashi Matha Samsthan, whenever a Swamiji attained <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">samadhi</span> at Kashi, a Vrindavana was not constructed as in other places. The mortal remains of the Swamiji would be placed in a box made of rock slabs and lowered into the holy river Ganga, who was born of Lord Vishnu's toe.</i></div>
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<i>Among Kashi Math pontiffs Upendra Thirtha (1) Swamiji, Raghavendra Thirtha (1) Swamiji, Upendra Thirtha (2) Swamiji & Srimad Vishnu Tirtha Swamiji had attained Jala Samadhi.</i></div>
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<i style="font-size: medium;">Jeeva Samadhi</i></h3>
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<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Jeeva Samadhi</span> is the tomb of a Hindu Spiritual Guru or a saint. It is believed that the saint's life force still exists in the tomb and prayers are offered to it.</i></div>
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<i>In this concept, by spiritual practices, life is not allowed to go out of the body. The seed cells in the body never get damaged. Such a person stops the functions of the body after completion of his or her mission by his or her own will. Gnani will fix his or her mind with the Almighty and stop functioning. The body is then buried. That body will never decay whether it is thousand or ten thousand years, because the magnetic force in the body itself acts as a life force in the body. As "unseen masters" or "invisible helpers" they guide the human race to wisdom.</i></div>
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<i>It is believed that this force remains forever and the time limit for the Samadhi status depends upon the saint's bio-magnetic strength, which may vary in terms of hundreds of years. Until then, the soul in samadhi stage will continue to bless the devotees. The place around such Jeeva Samadhi has very high spiritual magnetic force. It can be sensed by the gnana aspirant. If these places are maintained properly, they become energy banks supplying the needful.</i></div>
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<i>Madhavendra Thirtha Swamiji who was the seventh head of the Kashi Matha Samsthan, who founded the Kashi Matha premises in Walkeshwar, where ultimately he entered Jeevanta Samadhi. His Vrindavana is in the Matha premises in Bombay. A few stars shine in the spiritual firmament of India, the stars which have entered Samadhi while still alive. Madhavendra Thirtha Swamiji the only swamiji in the history of kashi math who had attained Jeevanta Samadhi.</i></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-21026068198470084402013-01-20T04:24:00.002-08:002013-01-20T04:24:32.400-08:00Bengali Brahmins<br />
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<i>The <b>Bengali Brahmins</b> are those Hindu <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Brahmins</span> who traditionally reside in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bengal</span> region of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Indian subcontinent</span>, currently comprising the Indian <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">state of West Bengal</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Tripura</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Assam</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bangladesh</span>. When the British left India in 1947, carving out separate nations (see <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">partition</span>), a number of families moved from the Muslim-majority <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">East Pakistan</span> (now Bangladesh) to be within the borders of the newly defined <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Republic of India</span>, and continued to migrate for several decades thereafter.</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">In the 19th (held at </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Prayag</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) and 20th (held at </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Lucknow</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) national convention of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kanyakubja Brahmins</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> by </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Kanyakubja Mahati Sabha</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, in 1926 and 1927 respectively, it appealed for unity among </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kanyakubja Brahmins</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> whose different branches included </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sanadhya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, Pahadi, Jujhoutia, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Saryupareen</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Chattisgarhi</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bhumihar Brahmins</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> and different </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bengali Brahmins</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Historically, the Bengali Brahmins have been the standard bearers of Madhyadeshiya culture in Bengal (Madhyadesh is the historic-cultural region of the upper Ganges–Yamuna doab which was the seat of Panch-Gauda brahmins).</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Bengali Brahmins are categorized as </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pancha-Gauda</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Brahmins (the Brahmins who traditionally lived to the north of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Vindhyas</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">).</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The earliest historically verifiable presence of brahmins in Bengal can be ascertained from Dhanaidaha copper-plate inscription of Kumargupta 1 of the Gupta Year 113 (433 C.E.) which records the grant of land to a brahmin named Varahasvamin of the Samavedi school.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">A copper-plate grant from the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Gupta</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> period found in the vicinity of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Somapura</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> mentions a Brahmin donating land to a Jain vihara at Vatagohali. Literary sources like Ramayana, Mahabharata, Jain and Buddhist works, however record the presence of brahmins in various parts of Bengal during earlier periods.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Historical evidence also attests significant presence of Brahmins in Bengal during the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Maurya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> period. The </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Jain</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Acharya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bhadrabahu</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, regarded to be the preceptor of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Chandragupta Maurya</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> is said to have been born in Brahmin family of </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pundravardhana</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> ( or </span><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; line-height: 19px; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Puṇḍra</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, the region north of the Ganges and west of Brahmaputra in Bengal, later known as Vārendra). Such evidences suggest </span><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; line-height: 19px; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Puṇḍra</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> or Vārendra and regions west of Bhagirathi (called Radha in ancient age) to be seats of brahmins from ancient times; Rādhi and Varendra are still chief branches of Bengali brahmins settled in these regions.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Medium to large scale migrations of Brahmins from various parts of India like </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mithila</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kanyakubja</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> region, Kolancha, southern India and Pushkar in Rajasthan, among other places, occurred from time to time, especially during </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Pala</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sena</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> periods.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Traditionally, Bengali brahmins are divided into the following categories:</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<li style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Rādhi from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Radh</span> (region south-west of the Ganges)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Varendra</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, from Vārendra region (North-East) or </span><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; line-height: 19px; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Puṇḍra</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. Vārendra originally meant rain-maker magicians.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="line-height: 19px;"><i>Vaidika (migrants, originally experts of Vedic knowledge)</i></span><ul style="list-style-type: disc; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Paschatya Vaidika (Vedic brahmins from west of Bengal)</i></li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Dakshinatya Vaidika (Vedic brahmins from south of Bengal)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="line-height: 1.5em;">Vaidyas (Saraswats who practiced and taught medicine )</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Madhya Sreni (brahmins of the midland country)</i></li>
<li style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Shakdvipi/ Grahavipra (migrant brahmins of Shakdvipa in Central Asia)</i></li>
<li style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Saptaśati</i></li>
</ul>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The different brahmin communities of Bengal have their own traditional accounts of origin, which are generally found in various genealogical texts known as kulagranthas or kulapanjikas. Other details may also be obtained from court chronicles of various kings of Bengal. Important writers are Harimishra (13th century C.E), Edu Mishra (13th century C.E), Devivara Ghatak (15th century C.E), Dhruvananda Mishra (post 15th century C.E), Vachaspati Mishra, Rajendralal Mitra among others.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b><i>Radhi and Varendra</i></b></li>
</ul>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">The traditional origin of both Radhi and Varendra brahmins has been attributed to a king named Ādiśūra who is said to have invited five Brahmins from Kolancha (as per Edu Mishra and Hari Mishra</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">) and/or from </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kanyakubja</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">,</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (as per Dhruvananda Mishra) so that he could conduct a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">yajña</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, because he could not find Vedic experts locally. Some traditional texts mention that Ādiśūra was ancestor of Ballāl Sena from maternal side and five brahmins had been invited in 1077 C.E.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">Other texts like Varendrakulapanjika, Vachaspati Mishra's account and Edu Mishra's account attribute a date of 732 C.E for the migration. Additionally, other sources like Sambandhanirnaya, Kulanrava and others attribute various dates like 942 C.E, 932 C.E and others.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Historians have located a ruler named Ādiśūra ruling in north <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bihar</span>, but not in Bengal</span><span style="line-height: 10px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">. But Ballāl Sena and his predecessors ruled over both Bengal and </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Mithila</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> (i.e., North Bihar). It is unlikely that the brahmins from Kānyakubja may have been invited to Mithila for performing a </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">yajña</span><span style="line-height: 19px;">, because Mithila was a strong base of brahmins since Vedic age.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> However some scholars have identified Ādiśūra with Jayanta, a vassal chief of the Gauda king around middle of 8th century C.E.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">and is also referred to as a contemporary of Jayapida (779 to 812 C.E) of Kashmir (grandson of Lalitaditya) in Kalhana's Rajatarangini.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b><i>Paschatya Vaidikas</i></b></li>
</ul>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Traditionally they are believed to have migrated from Kanyakubja (or Kanauj), the traditional origin of both Radhi and Varendra brahmins, to Bengal via Tirhoot, during the commencement of Muslim rule in India. Most of the vaidikas were invited by Hindu chiefs and rajas who used to rule in various parts of Bengal during the Muslim ascendancy.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">As per one account, a king called Shyamal Varma, invited five Brahmins from Kānyakubja who became the progenitors of the Paschatya Vaidika Brahmins. They have gotras found in the Brahmin community of Kanyakubj (Bharadwaj, Garga, Gautam, Katatayan, Kaushik, Kashyap, Krishnatreya, Rathitara, Parashar, Sankrityayan, Shandilya, Savarna, Srivats, Shaunak, Vashista, Valmiki, Upmanyu).</span></i></div>
<ul style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b><i>Dakshinatya Vaidikas</i></b></li>
</ul>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Traditionally it is believed that during his reign, Vijaya Sena (1097 to 1160 C.E), brought brahmins from South India to Bengal, who integrated themselves with the varendra barhmins and came to be known as Dakshinatya vaidika barahmins.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Other texts say that it was during the Chalukya invasion of Gauda under Vikramaditya VI (1076–1126 CE) that brahmins from south came and settled in Bengal.</span></i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kulin Brahmins</span> are those Brahmins in Bengal who can trace themselves to the five families of Kanauj (Kanyakubja), Uttar Pradesh who migrated to Bengal. The five families were of the five different gotras (Shandilya, Bharadwaj, Kashyap, Vatsya and Saavarna). They are widely believed to be at the apex of Bengal's caste hierarchy.</i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>The kulin families are further divided into two sections:</i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Barendra : Belonging to those families who settled at the north or north east region of the Ganges or Padma river. Rarhi : Belonging to those families who settled at the south or southwest region of the Ganges or Padma river.</i></div>
<ul style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Varendra</span></b>, from Varendra region (NE&E Bengal (Bangladesh))</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Rādhi'</b> from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Radh</span> (SE Bengal, approximately modern West Bengal SW of the Ganges.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Vaidika</b>, migrant brahmins from other parts of India.</i></li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Other minor divisions are :</i></div>
<ul style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Saptaśati</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Pirāli</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Patita</i></li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>It is believed that the Brahmins of Bengal adapted kulinism from a similar hierarchical system used by the Brahmins of Mithilā, although Kānyakubja and more especially Saryupāriya were also highly scrupulous. The five original Brahmins belonged to five gotras : Śāndilya, Kāśyapa, Vatsa, Bhārdvāja, <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Sāvarṇa</span> Both Brahmins and Kayasthas in Bengal have followed a system that ranks the clans hierarchically. The Kulinas formed the higher ranking clans.</i></div>
<ul style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Rādhi</b> Rādhi (also <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Rāṭhi</span> in some old texts) is the major branch of Western Bengali brahmins . The descendants of these five Pancyājñika brahmins were hierarchically organised into three categories :</i></li>
</ul>
<ul style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Śrotriya</b> is the second rank among the descendants of these five brahmins because they were deft in Vedic knowledge but were considered to be somewhat inferior to the Kulina brahmins (possessing 8 out of 9 noble qualities).</i></li>
</ul>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="line-height: 19px;"><b>Vamśaja</b></span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> is the third rank which was a result of kulinas marrying outside kulinas.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Major titles adopted by the high Rādhi brahmins :</i></div>
<ul style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Mukhopādhyāya</b> and its adaptation <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mukherjee</span></b> a <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kulin</span></b> brahmin</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Bandopādhyāya</b> and its adaptation <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Banerjee</span></b> a <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kulin</span></b> brahmin</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Chattopādhyāya</b> and its adaptation <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chatterjee</span></b> a <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kulin</span></b> brahmin</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Gangopādhyāya</b> and its adaptation <b>Ganguli</b> / <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ganguly</span></b> a <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kulin</span></b> brahmin</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bhattāchārya</span></b> and its adaptation <b>Bhattacharya</b>/ <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bhattacharjee</span></b> a <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kulin</span></b> brahmin</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Goswami</b> and its adaptation <b>Swami of ones own Gow</b> / <b>further Gow stands for 5 Sense of human body, so sanyasins are those who can master their own senses.</b> a <b><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kulin</span></b>brahmin</i></li>
</ul>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Jāti-<span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Bhāṣkar</span> mentions that those who were given grants along the Ganges by Ballāl Sena were called Gangopādhyāya (literally 'the Vedic teachers in the regions around the Ganges').</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Mukhopādhyāya means chief Vedic teacher. Bandopādhyāya is a Sanskritized form of 'Banodha + upādhyāya', Banodha being the ancient name of Raebareli-Unnāva whence their ancestors had come from.</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Bhattāchārya meant 'expert of Vedic rituals'. This was an honorary title awarded to a Rādhi, Vārendra or Vaidika brahmin who excelled in spiritual and vedic matters. The Bhattāchārya's are generally referred to as the Hindu Priests in Bengal.</i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Goswami is a typically a title bestowed on people who choose the path of Sannyasa. The sanyasins or disciples of Adi Shankaracharya are also called "Dash Nam" as the Title Goswami is further divided into ten groups viz. Giri, Puri, Bharti, Ban, Aranya, Sagar, Aashram, Saraswati, Tirth, Yogi and Parwat. These all dashnam Goswamis are associated with four Math in four corners of India, established by Adi Shankaracharya. Initially all the disciples were Sanyasins who embraced sanyas either after marriage or without getting married. Since, sanyasins are considered as Brahmin therefore during the course of time, those who embraced married life on the order of their guru and their decedents are considered Brahmins with the surname Goswami. Being a Goswami Sanyasin includes a vow of celibacy. Some religious traditions use the title Swami for those who had never married, and Goswami for those who had been married in that life and vow not to marry again. This is also the source of the surname Gosain. Goswami can also refer to an individual from the Brahmin caste of the Hindu religion.</i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>These brahmins also claim descent from five original brahmins, although four out of five names are different, and they are also hierarchically organised into three groups :</i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>(1) <b>Śri Kulin</b> comprising <b>Bāgchi</b>, <b>Chākrāborty (Chākrāvārti)</b>, <b>Lāhiri</b>, <b>Māitra</b>, <b>Bhāduri</b>, <b>Sānyal</b>, etc.</i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>(2) <b>Śrotriya</b> have Nanda, Bhato Shāstri, Karanja, Laduli, Navasi, etc.</i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>(3) <b><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Kaṣṭa</span> Kulin</b> comprising 85 gains (villages given in grant by Sena kings).</i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Another intermediate order is called <b>Kāpa</b> (originally Kulin but negligent in duty) which is between first two.</i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Other famous titles of Bengali Kulin brahmins are <b>Bhattāchārya,Roy, Choudhary, Roy Chowdhury,Mishra</b>,etc. There were many big landlords among Vārendra and Rādhi brahmins alike, bearing titles such as Roy and Roy Chowdhury. While Bhattāchārya literally meant 'experts of Vedic rituals', the Rāi/Roy, Choudhary, and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Roy Chowdhury</span> were administrative titles, conferred not only on the Brahmin landlords, Rajas and/or zamindars, but also to landlords from other castes who owned and administered vast landed properties.</i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>These are of two types :</i></div>
<ul style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b><span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Dākṣiṇātyas</span></b>, coming from <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Orissa</span> & <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Andhra</span> originally but now part and parcel of Bengali brahmins.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><b>Pāschātyas</b>, coming from western and northern India originally but now part of Bengali brahmins.</i></li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>These were experts of Vaidika knowledge who were invited to Bengal in different ages, later than the original five brahmins from which Rādhi brahmins originated.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Before the coming of Five Brahmins, there were 700 houses of brahmins in Bengal, but now they are few. They were less learned than the migrants and therefore were deprived of patronage</span><span style="line-height: 10px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Some of them mixed with the immigrants, which explains their decline in relative population. Many Saptaśatis became priests of lower castes and were labelled as Agradāni and grahavipra</span><span style="line-height: 13px; white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> Main titles are </span><b style="line-height: 19px;">Arath, Bālkhāvi, Jagāye, Pikhoori, Mulkajoori, Bhagāye, Gāi,</b><span style="line-height: 19px;"> etc.</span></i></div>
<ul style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Pirāli : literally, boycotted Brahmins. Some kulin Brahmins mixed with Muslims in eating and other activities and were therefore boycotted by the orthodox sections. Prominent among these were Thākurs, anglicised as Tagores. Thākurs literally meant lords and were big landowners.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Patita : Some Bengali Brahmins were publicly declared to be fallen Brahmins.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chakraborty</span> (Chakravarti) is a title suitable for emperors granted to some Bengali Brahmins.</i></li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Another peculiar title is Chir Kori or <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Chir Koḍi</span>.</i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
</div>
<div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Bengali Brahmins showed positive results for only three Y-Haplogroups <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">R1a1</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">R2a</span> and <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">H1</span>. Y-Haplogroups and their respective percentages are shown in the following table.</i></div>
<table class="wikitable" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>R1a1</i></th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>R2a</i></th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><i>H1</i></th></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>72.22%</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>22.22%</i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>5.56%</i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="line-height: 10px;"><i><br /></i></span><div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Haplogroup R1a1, which has originated either in South Asia</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">or Central Asia</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;">or Eastern Europe</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> is the most prevalent haplogroup amongst the Bengali Brahmins. The haplogroup is associated with the spread of the </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Indo-European</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> culture in Indian sub-continent. A very high percentage of 72.22% among Bengali Brahmins which is also one of the highest found frequencies within world groups hints at its presence as a founder lineage for this caste group.</span><span style="line-height: 13px;"> </span></i></div>
<div style="line-height: 19px;">
<span class="mw-headline"><i>The kulinist system degenerated during the 18-19th century and is no longer popular. The British occupation of Bengal radically transformed the Bengali culture. Bengal has now gone through two centuries of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Christian</span> missionary efforts and a quarter century of a Marxist government in the state of West Bengal. Bengal was divided by the British colonial rulers. Eastern Bengal was a Muslim majority region which resulted in the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">first partition of Bengal in 1905</span>, and then <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">final partition in 1947</span>. Although the interaction with the British resulting in what is termed the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bengal Renaissance</span> (almost wholly Brahmin) it altered the hold of traditional mainstream Hinduism in the region.
</i></span></div>
<div>
<span class="mw-headline"><i><div style="line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Many Bengali Brahmin family names are written in two different ways. For example, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chattopadhyay</span> (compound of village name "<span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Chaṭṭa</span>" and "upādhyāya" denoting "priest, teacher" originally granted with the village named <span class="Unicode" style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS', 'Lucida Sans Unicode'; text-decoration: none;" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">Chaṭṭa</span>) is the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sanskritized</span> form of the local <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Prakrit</span> word "chaturjye", <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">anglicized</span> to <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chatterjee</span>.</div>
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Similar analyses may be performed on Mukhurjye/<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Mukherjee</span>/Mukhopādhyāya, Banurjye/<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Banerjee</span>/Bandyopādhyāya, and Ganguli/<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ganguly</span>/Ganggopādhyāya. Bhattāchārya which is made by two words Bhatta and Achārya which means teacher also called as Bhattāchārjee. Tagore is the anglicized form of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Thakur</span>, meaning "lord". Other Bengali Brahmin family names are anglicized in particular ways that have become the standard English spellings over time. Other Bengali Brahmin surnames are Goswami, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Chakraborty</span>, Sanyal, Ghoshal etc.</div>
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The most famous Bengali Brahmin family which originally belonged to Calcutta (Kolkata) are the Sabarna Roy Choudhury family (originally Ganggopādhyāyas,who later adopted the zamindari title Roy Choudhury and Sabarna, implying their gotra, which is also the gotra of Ganggopādhyāyas), which had transferred the tenancy rights of Sutanuti, Gobindapur and Kolikata to the East India Company at the behest of the Mughal Emperor.</div>
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<span style="line-height: 19px;">The bulk of Bengali Brahmin </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">gotras</span><span style="line-height: 19px;"> are:</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bharadwaja</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Vatsya Gotra</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kashyapa</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Sabarna or <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Savarna</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Shandilya</span></li>
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Besides the above mentioned, other gotras can also be found at low frequencies within the Bengali Brahmin community.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13731309741986996418noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6688123856168045883.post-82147640089580599792013-01-20T04:02:00.001-08:002013-01-20T04:02:32.189-08:00Sanadhya Brahmin<i><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Sanadya Brahmin</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> or </span><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Sanadh Brahmin</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, or </span><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Sanah Brahmin</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> or </span><b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">Sanidya Brahmin</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> are a community of Brahmins, living prominently in </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Delhi</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">,Western </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Uttar Pradesh</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Rajasthan</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> and </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Madhya Pradesh</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> area of India. They are originally from North India and migrated to central India due to Mugal attacks on Afghan - Kashmir and Himalaya. They are traditionally engaged in ashramit/hermit life, the life of austerity: sanen tapsah adhya.. They can be classified as one of the strongest schools of the Upanishads teachings. They are also followers and priest of </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Sun</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> like other Panchayatan deities. Their Ashramas made a chain from the foothills of the Himalayas through Doab down to Chitrakut. Their Ashramas suffered most fearsome attacks by rulers of Non-brahmnical faiths.</span>
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<i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">In the 19th and 20th national convention of </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Kanyakubja Brahmins</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> by Kanyakubja Mahati Sabha, in 1926 and 1927 respectively, Kanyakubja Brahmins whose different brahmin branches included Sanadhya, Pahadi, Jujhoutia, </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Saryupareen Brahmins</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Chattisgadhi</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">, </span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bhumihar Brahmins</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"> and different</span><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-origin: initial; line-height: 19px;">Bengali Brahmins</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 13px;"> </span></i><br />
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<i>"Kanyakubj Vanshavali" mentions five branches of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Kanyakubja Brahmins</span> as <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Saryupareen</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Sanadhya</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Bhumihar</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Jujhautiya</span> and Prakrit Kanaujia:</i></div>
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<i>Saryupari Sanadhyashcha Bhumiharo Jijhoutayah<br />Prakritashcha Iti Panchabhedastasya Prakartitah</i></div>
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<i><span style="line-height: 19px;">Sanadhya Samhita gives an account of the origin of the Sanadhya community. Lord <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ramachandra</span> of <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Ayodhya</span> invited some Adi Gauda Brahmins to conduct a yajna. As <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">dakshina</span> he gave villages to 750 of them, who came to be called Sanadhya. They were engaged in tapa, thus came to be called Sanadhya</span><span style="line-height: 10px;"> </span></i></div>
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<i>An alternative theory is that since they worship Lord Sun (or '<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Surya</span>') (Skt san), they are called Sanadhya. Sikh Guru <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Gobind Singh</span> has mentioned that his ancestors once lived in the Sanadh region, this may have been the region from where the Sanadhya originated.</i></div>
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<i>There have been genuine attempts to show the unity of Brahmins, but it was always to show that all the Brahmins were migrated and bifurcated from a "particular Brahmin". The point is missed that Brahmins as such were one original class which moved towards the East. It was a strict practice to safeguard the purity of the blood of the East-advancing front of Brahmins by taking girls from the west so that the East advancing front does not mingle up with the Nagas and other races which were pushed further east. Brahmins remember this practice even today to marry their daughters to the east and take girls from the west, and by doing so they preserved the purity throughout the Indo-Gangetic plains also called Gaudadesh. Later, when advancement to the east eventually completed, sticking up with locality was forced to check the continuous flux of Brahmins from the west. This was a wise step to control possibility of over-populating the firtile lands of the Ganges eastward.But, sadly, it resulted in a rigid and foolhardy localisation and division of the great width of Brahmins. They became almost myopic and lost their strength.</i></div>
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<i>Sanadhya word carries two very ancient Sanskrit roots, in fact, of vedic antiquity. Sanah for a specific '<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">sacrifice</span>'(<b>Sanatana</b> from the same root ~synonym) and aadhiyah or aarurha means '<b>incessantly engaged in'</b>, and also '<b>full of opulence'</b> or '<b>rich in'</b> or '<b>firmly walking (or mounted) foremost and ahead'</b> on the path of penance. Hence those who possess opulence of Sanah sacrifice, or 'ahead in austerities'or '<b>mounted firmly, foremost and ahead of all, on the Tapascharya'</b> were called sanadhyas in comparison to the Purohitas and Priest who lived in cities or villages.The term is non-local, and independent of region. It is associated with the Aaranyaka Brahmins, the forest dwellers, and therefore the much later classification into regional subclass into Panch Gauda and Panch Dravid does not include the forest dwellers. It is true that every Brahmin, wherever he may belong to,the glorious Saraswat of Kashmir, the matchless and graceful Kanyakubja, the pious and proud Sarayuparain, the brilliant and mystic Maithil, the holy and lofty Gauda or the one from great descent of panch Dravidas, has been a descendent of the original clans of Forest dwellers/or those engaged in austerities and penance.</i></div>
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<i>The first story cited from the so called Sanadhya Samhita does not seem to be consistent. The composition of the Samhita does not seem to have any remote date in the history.During Rama's time, by any rate going prior to 600 BC, the time when division into subclasses as we presently know them, had not taken place. No question, then, arises for calling them to be a group of Adi gauda's participated in the yajna.However, the ground reality is that they remain <b>non-distinct from Adi Gauda</b> and do consider themselves the <b>ascetic branch of Adi Gauda</b>. In Rama's time there were only three occupations of Brahmins <b>priests, Purohitas and Aranyaka Brahmins</b>,some of them elevated to the level of Rishi. The Samahita seems to be quite recent or post-classification era, far down in time from the Valmiki Ramayana. <b>Rama</b> did meet <b>Aranyaka Brahmins</b> in the Valmiki Ramayana, and he did call them to be always engaged in Tapa and therefore were the Brahmins worthy of 'high reverence'. That is all.</i></div>
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<i>The second hypothesis related to Guru Gobind Singh Sahib's ancestral village Sanadh, it again does not prove to be native place for sanadhyas and the name sanadhyas to be after this village.The opposite may be a possibility that the place came to be called Sanadh after the Sanadhyas.</i></div>
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<i>Sanadhyas are a dominant section of north Indian Brahmins, most numerous in Gangetic '<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Doaba</span>' region and they touch the Kanaujias on the north west extending over central Rohilkhand, and the part of the upper central duab from Pilibhit to Gwalior. The boundary line runs from the northwest angle of Rampur through Richa, Jahanabad, Nawabganj, Barielly, Faridpur to the Ramganga, thence through Samilpur and the borders of Mehrabad, thence down the Ganges to the borders of Kanauj, thence up the Kali nadi to the western border of Alipurpatti, through Bhavgaon, Sij, Bibamau and down the Janumna to the junction of Chambel. </i></div>
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<i>Sanadhya Brahmins make a triumvarate along with kanyakubj Brahmins and Bengali Brahmins in practicing the doctroine of nobility ; like biswa system of kanyakubj Brahmins and kuleen system of Bengali Brahmins, the sanadhyas rigourusly practice the '<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">allh</span>' system to jeaously safeguard the purity of their blood. They are branch of Adi Gauda Brahmins, Rtviz of ashwmegh yajna performed by Lord Sri Rama and have matrimonial relations in their own fold and Adi Gauda Brahmins. They have matrimonial relations with kanyakubj Brahmins as well. It should be kept in mind that Lord Rama established 750 autonomous ashrams in the Doab region to institutionalize the otherwise unorganized spread of knowledgeable traditional Brahmins whom he had promised a safe living at the time of his exile. The adi gauda means the ancient undivided non-regionalised brahimins of the gangetic plains (i.e. the Adi gauda region) and not the Adi gauda sub-class of the present day classification in the strict sense of the word of that era, therefore, it encompasses all the best learned families of north Indian Brahmins.Further as the history goes this region faced invaders' cruelty and calamity and the institutional system faced greatest blows. Number of Vedic branches, shivaite schools, and grammarian and other rare traditional texts were lost. Yet, against all oddities Sanadhyas survived with their pure taste for knowledge though they were forced by the invaders to live in the fringes of un-fertile lands and ravines with little to support an average living.</i></div>
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<i>However the Brahmins of different regions developed specialized understanding in the Brahmin pockets. The great clans of the Brahmins of Kanyakubja region were extraordinary in Raj-dharma and Nyay dhrama, the Saryuparain Brahmins were superb puritan of Ramashrayi school of Vaishnavas,standing high on the Epic and Puranas interpretaions and remain outstanding in the conduction, interpretation, and practice of religion, Maithils were great Shaktas with profound depth of tantrik taditions, Adigaudas, were precise Astrologers and adept Ayurvedic masters forming lofty Krishnashrayi school of Vaishnavas, Jijotiyas were the specilized vedic Karmkandi with perfection in Yagnik practices. Saraswatas excelled in Grammars and Yogik practices. Sanadhyas followed the diverse practices of Shaivite philosophy to Shakta tradition and so also thoroughly vaishnavism however keeping their eyes fixed on vedic and upanishadic abstract thinking. All this great width of Brahmins of Indo-gangetic plains flowed like thousand meadows through the second millennium of adversity to vedic religion.</i></div>
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<i>Migration and infiltration of <b>Sanadhya Brahmins</b> into central India from the north took place after the fall of Marathas. In the beginning of the 19th century by 1820 AD families of Sanadhyas started to migrate to the Narmada valley extending from Mandla to Hoshangabad and so also into the Malwa from Vidisha to Ujjain and Indore. This migration was mostly from Bhind-Gwalior-Murena-Agra region where extensive Gully-Ravines were forming and penetrating into agriculture lands and converting these lands of Chambal-Yamuna belt into so called Badland Topography. The north-western MP i.e. Ratlam and Mansaur regions were infiltrated from southern Rajasthan. This migration may be corelateable with the deterioration of lands and family partitions. Those who opted to move to the fertile lands of MP were sufferers of family division and got ravenous part of the parental land on property divisions. The mass migration was accompanied by other people also belonging to Rajputs ( Chouhans and Sisodias), Kauravas, Jats, Gujjars, yadavas etc. Narsinghpur district. of Narmada valley has a good population of this assembly which is a facsimile representative of the Vraja-mandala includung part of Dhaulpur-Bharatpur and Gwalior region, wherefrom the migration had triggered. Remarkably, the Narmada valley was freed from Pindaries'<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pindari</span>' by 1820 by the Narmada Protection Force and from Thugs by 1842 by the great British officer Col. Sleeman. Thus Narmada valley became a safe and favourite place for settlement with its fertile soils. Apart from the Narmada region, migration took place from Gwalior-Jhansi-Urai area to the Sagar region of MP.</i></div>
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