Mythological origins
The first literary reference to Goa is in the Bhishma Parva of Mahabharata as Gomanta which translates as the region of cows. Despite a lack of archaeological and historical evidence, Hindu scriptures mention Parashurama, as its creator(see:Skanda Purana:Sahyadrikhanda). He is said to have settled ten sages in this land and performed fire sacrifices. Another legend has that after performing the penance, the seven sages named the Saptarshiswere blessed by Lord Shiva; thereafter the sages were known as the Saptakoteshwar. Further Lord Shiva is believed to have taken up temporary residence after a dispute with his consort Parvati. Yet another legend states Lord Krishna defeated Jarasandha, the king of Magadha on Gomanchal Mountain in Goa. (see:Hari Vamsha purana)
In Suta Samhita Govapuri or Goa is associated with spiritually cleansing touch:...The very sight of Govapuri destroys any sin committed in former existence just as sunrise dispels darkness... Certainly there is no other kshetra equal to Govapuri
A similar hymn praising Govapuri city is found in Sahyadrikhanda of Skanda Purana, which says the extent of Goapuri was about seven Yojanas.
| “ | गोकर्णादुत्तरे भागे सप्तयोजनविस्तृतं तत्र गोवापुरी नाम नगरी पापनाशिनी | ” |
According to the Parshurama legend, Parashurama, the sixth reincarnation of Vishnu faced with an order of banishment from the lands that he had once conquered, sets seven arrows fly from theSahydris to push back the sea and create a stretch of land which he could claim for himself. The sea-god is believed to have acceded his to wish and crated a region Shurparaka, which translates literally to winnowing fan. This region is also known as Parashurama Kshetra. The legend further tells us that having created Goa, Parashurama brought Brahmins from the North and settled them in this land.(See:Shree Scanda Puran (Sayadri Khandha) -Ed. Dr. Jarson D. Kunha, Marathi version Ed. By Gajanan shastri Gaytonde).
Paleolithic and Mesolithic eraThe Parashurama legend personifies the geological process of elevation of submerged land along the west coast, which must have taken place around 12,000 BC. There is evidence to support this theory as indicated by presence of marine fossils, buried seashells and other features of reclaimed topography in the coastal belt. The evidence provided by the conch (Shankh) at Surla Village, fossilized marine conches discovered in 1863, petrified roots, fossilied branches have been found later in many villages on the foothills of the Sahyadri dating back more than 10,000 BC. Thus the geologists concluded that Goa has risen up from seabed as a result of violent tectonic movements. At the decline of the intensity of pluviation in the last Pleistocenic age around 10.000 BC, the bottom of Deccan plateau was lifted up and out of sea-waters by the tectonic movements, formed the West-coast of India, Goa being a part thereof.
Until 1993 the existence of Homo sapiens in Goa during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic period was highly debated. The discovery of rock art engravings on lateritic platforms and granite boulders from Usgalimal on the banks of west-flowing river Kushavati River, has shed light on the prehistory of Goa. The rock shelter at Usgalimal has enough space for 25 to 30 people. The perennial stream in the vicinity which might have served Stone age man for centuries as a source of water. An anthropomorphic figure of Mother goddess and tectiforms resembling tree-like motifs have been found. This site was discovered by Dr P.P.Shirodkar. Exploration of several Mesolithic sites of the Mandovi-Zuari basin, at other sites such as Keri, Thane, Anjuna, Mauxim, Kazur inQuepem, Virdi, has led to the discovery of several scrapers, points, bores, cones, et cetera. A hand axe has also been found at Usgalimal. Further unifacial choppers were recovered on a flat-based pebble of quartzite from a pebble conglomerate at Shigaon on the Dudhsagar River. Shirodakar made a detailed study of the rock engravings and dated them to Upper paleolithic and Mesolithic phases, or to 20,000-30,000 BC. These discoveries have demonstrated that the region had been supporting a population of hunter-gatherers well before the advent of agriculture. Evidence of Palaeolithic cave existence can be seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigaon, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, Aquem-Margaon et cetera. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds has posed a problem in determining the exact time period.
Kushavati Shamanic culture
Kushavati Shamanic culture
Dr. Nandkumar Kamat from the University of Goa discovered the prehistoric petroglyphs of Goa. More than 125 forms were found scattered on the banks of river Kushavati in south-eastern Goa. According to Dr. Kamat, these are evidence of a prehistoric Goanshamanistic practice. For hundreds of years the Kushavati rock art gallery of Goa was known locally as goravarakhnyachi chitram or pictures made by the local cowherds. But people did not know of the works' origins in antiquity nor any could interpret them. After thorough study of these forms, it was concluded that these petroglyphs differ from those found elsewhere in Goa. Deeper studies and analysis over a period of ten years showed, these petroglyphs were an exquisitely carved ocular labyrinth, one of the best in India and Asia. Its ocular nature also reinforced the evidence of prehistoric shamanism. The studies have shown that the Kushavati culture was ahunter-gatherer culture embedded in the knowledge of local natural resources and processes - water, fish, plants, game, animal breeding cycles, seasons and natural calamities. The Kushavati culture was greatly concerned with water security, so the camp was set up near the stream. The Kushavati found food security in the jungle near the steam ensured plentiful food. It was also confronting the mysteries of illness, death and birth. This culture dates back around 20,000-30,000 years back. On basis of recent DNA based work on human migration Dr. Nandkumar Kamat has ruled out the possibility of Kushavati shamans belonging to the first wave of humans to step in Goa. They were not negritoes or austrics. Most probably they were the earliest Mediterraneans who had descended the Western Ghatsprobably in their search for sea salt on Goa’s coast. As the Kushavati transitioned into a Neolithic society, they began the domestication of animals and were in the last phase of using stone tools – the entire realm of shamanism underwent a radical transition. Today evidence of the metamorphosis in masked dance drama Perni jagor can be seen in the same cultural region.
Goa was the base for Albuquerque's conquest of Malacca in 1511 and Hormuz in 1515. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, distinct from the fortified factories established in certain Indian seaports. Goa was made capital of the Portuguese Vice-Kingdom in Asia, and the other Portuguese possessions in India, Malacca and other bases in Indonesia, East Timor, the Persian Gulf, Macau in China and trade bases in Japan were under the suzerainty of its Viceroy. By mid–16th century, the area under occupation had expanded to most of present-day limits.
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting within the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774–1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of Roman Catholic Christianity in India both by Christians and non-Christians alike. Based on the records that survive, H. P. Salomon and I. S. D. Sassoon state that between the Inquisition's beginning in 1561 and its temporary abolition in 1774, some 16,202 persons were brought to trial by the Inquisition. Of this number, it is known that 57 were sentenced to death and executed in person; another 64 were burned in effigy. Others were subjected to lesser punishments or penanced, but the fate of many of the Inquisition's victims is unknown. The Inquisition was established to punish relapsed New Christians – Jews and Muslims who converted to Catholicism, as well as their descendants – who were now suspected of practicing their ancestral religion in secret. In Goa the Inquisition also turned its attention to Indian converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have returned to their original ways. In addition, the Inquisition prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the observance of Hindu or Muslim rites or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. While its ostensible aim was to preserve the Catholic faith, the Inquisition was used against Indian Catholics and Hindus as an instrument of social control, as well as a method of confiscating victims' property and enriching the Inquisitors. Most of the Goa Inquisition's records were destroyed after its abolition in 1812, and it is thus impossible to know the exact number of the Inquisition's victims.
Neolithic period
Archaeological evidence in the form of polished stone axes, suggest the first settlements of Neolithic man in Goa. These axes have been found in Goa Velha. During this period tribes ofAustric origin such as the Kols, Mundaris and Kharvis may have settled Goa, living on hunting, fishing and a primitive form of agriculture since 3500 BC. According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. In Dhume's work he mentions several words of Mundari origin in theKonkani language. Dhume also elaborates on the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming and its overall impact on modern day Goan society TheNegroids were in an Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food-gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium. The Proto-Australoid tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan with the other mentioned tribes formed reportedly the earliest settlers in the territory. Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was only just shaping up. The Kols and Mundaris might have been using stone and wood implements as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.
During this period worship began of a mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer.The Anthill is called Roen(Konkani:रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word Rono meaning with holes. The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit Santara. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of Bhumika in Prakrit. The anthill worship still continues in Goa.
The Indo-Aryan migrations to Goa
The first wave of Indo-Aryans settled in Goa about 2400 BC. Some of these migrants might have been followers of the Vedic religion. They were known to speak the earliest form of Prakrit orVedic Sanskrit vernacular. This migration of the northerners is mainly attributed to the drying up of the mighty Sarasvati River. Historians claim only Gowda Saraswat Brahmins and few of the other Brahmins to be their descendants. This hypothesis is not authoritative according to some historians. Balakrishna Dattaram Kamat Satoskar, a Goan Indologist and historian, in his work Gomantak prakruti ani sanskruti Volume I, explains that the original Sarasvat tribe consisted of people of all the folds who followed the Vedic fourfold system and not just Brahmins, as the caste system was not fully developed then and did not play an important role at the time. (see Gomantak prakruti ani sanskruti,Volume I).
Some historians have proposed a theory of migration of the Bhargava tribe to Goa from Gujarat. This tribe was named after their clan symbol of an axe. This theory links the Parashurama myth with the history. According to this theory the Bhargava clan is connected to the Phrygians in Asia Minor, and Parashurama, also known as Bhargavarama, was one of their clan leaders. These Bhargavas might have started their sea-expedition before the Mahabharata War. The Angiras tribe is also thought to have migrated from the north-western India during this time.
Dhume maintains that the first wave of Aryans did not introduce any radical changes into the existing religious systems and that the changes which took place were effected by the Sumerians. Thus the modern historians have concluded that there is no connection between the migrations from the North and the Parashurama legend.
The advent of Sumerians 2200 BC
The first written reference to Goa appear in Cuneiform during Sumerian times when the King Gudea of Lagash called Goa Gubio. This was around 2200 BC and Sumerians had established trade contacts with Goa. Many Sumerians settled in Goa and along the Konkan coast. Sumerians are thought to have designed the fields of Goa because as these follow their measure till date. Unlike 0.46 m unit generally prevalent elsewhere in India, it is pointed out that the positioning in Goa agrees with Sumerian 12 cubits to a pole, and 0.495 of a meter to a cubit. Later thePhoenicians became extensive settlers of Goa around 1775 BC. Several Cuneiform inscriptions have been found in Goa and an Oracle plate dedicated to Inana has been recovered from Savoi Verem. Sumerians are believed to have modified many local customs and introduce their own systems such as their style of temple architecture, the Devadasi system; the Sumerians also influenced the language, caste system, and the kinship practices to some extent. Sumerian influence in Goa can also be seen in the entertainment and games of the region.
The Formations of Gavkaris and the self rule
The theocratic democracy of Sumer was transformed into the oligarchic democracy of village-administration in Goa known as Gavkari, when it overlapped with the practices of the locals. The agricultural land was jointly owned by the group of villagers, they had right to auction the land, this rent was used for development, and the remainder was distributed amongst the Gavkars. Sumerians view that the village land must belong to the village god or goddess, this was the main feature of the Gavkari system where the village's preeminent deity's temple was the center of all the activities. It consisted of definite boundaries of land from village to village with its topographic detail, its management and social, religious and cultural interaction. Gavkari thus were in existence long before constitution of the state of Goa itself.
Thus even before any king ruled the territory, oligarchic democracy in the form of Gavkari existed in Goa. This form of village-administration was called as Gaunponn (Konkani:गांवपण), and despite the periodic change of sovereigns, the Gaunponn always remained, hence the attachment and fidelity of the Goans to their village has always surpassed their loyalty to their rulers (most of them were extraterritorial). This system for governance became further systematized and fortified, and it has continued to exist ever since. Even today 223 comunidades are still functioning in Goa, though not in the true sense.
The later migrations
The second wave of Indo-Aryans arrived sometime between 1700 to 1400 BC. This second wave migration was accompanied by Dravidians from the Deccan plateau. A wave of Kusha orHarappan people moved to Lothal probably around 1600 BC to escape submergence of their civilization which thrived on sea-trade. With the admixture of several cultures, customs, religions, dialects and beliefs, led to revolutionary change in early Goan society.
The age of empires
The Mauryas
The history of the Mauryas is almost a non-extant. The existing records disclose the names of only three of the dynasty's kings, namely Suketavarvan who ruled some time in the 4 th or 5 centuries BC, Chandravarman in the 6 th century BC and Ajitavarman in the 7 th century BC, who ruled from Kumardvipa or modern Kumarjuve, but beyond that the records provide no clue as to their mutual relationship. These dates were determined by comparing the style of the Nagari script in which these records are written with the evolution of this script, which may be dated fairly correctly. It is possible to infer from the places mentioned in these records and their discovery locations that at its zenith, the Western Maurya Kingdom comprised the Lata or South Gujarat, coastal Maharashtra, Goa, and half of the North Kanara district. After the Maurya Empire had passed its meridian in 2 nd century BC its satrap in Aparanta made himself independent. A scion of the imperial Mauryas, the dynasty he founded ruled over the west coast for nearly four centuries from its capital Shurparaka or modern Sopara. This dynasty was known as the Konkan Mauryas. Goa was called as Sunaparant by the Mauryas.
Chandragupta Maurya incorporated the west coast of India in his province of Aparanta, and the impact of Magadhan Prakrit, the official language of the Mauryan Empire, on the local dialects resulted in the formation of early Konkani, as was the case with other Aryan vernaculars. During this era Buddhism was introduced to Goa. Similarly a native goan named Purna, also known as Punna in Pali, who traveled to Sarnath is considered a direct disciple of Buddha, who popularized Buddhism in Goa in 5th century BC.
The Shatavahanas
The Satavahanas dynasty began as vassals of the Mauryan Empire, but declared independence as the Mauryan Empire declined. The Satavahana dynasty ruled Goa through their coastal vassals, the Chutus of Karwar. This period is estimated to have lasted from around the 2nd century BC to 100 AD. The Satavahanas had established maritime power and their contacts withRoman empire from the coastal trade from Sindh to Saurashtra, from Bharuch to Sopara to Goa, where Greek and Roman ships would halt during voyages. The Bhojas fortified themselves after the end of Satavahana Empire. With the fall of the Satavahanas, the lucrative seaborne trade declined. Many Greek converts to Buddhism settled in Goa during this period. Buddha statues in Greek styles have been found in Goa. It can be seen that they ruled a very small part of Goa. Maharashtri prakrit was their language of administration, which influenced medieval Konkani to a great extent.
Goa under the Western Kshatrapas
Later King Shashthadeva conquered the island of Goa such as the port Gopakpattana and Kapardikadvipa, and annexed a large part of South Konkan to his kingdom, and made Gopakpattana as his secondary capital. The next King Jayakeshi I further expanded the Goan kingdom. Sanskrit Jain text Dvayashraya mentions the extent of his capital. Port Gopakapattna had trade contacts with Zanzibar, Bengal,Gujarat and Sri Lanka(mentioned as Zaguva,Gauda,Gurjara,Simhala in the Sanskrit text). The city has been described in the contemporary records not only as aesthetically pleasing, but spiritually cleansing as well. On account of its commercial nature, Gopakapattna possessed a cosmopolitan look. The capital was served by an important highway called Rajvithi or Rajpath which linked it with Ela, the ruins of which can still be seen. For more than 300 years it remained a nucleus of intra-coastal and trans-oceanic trade from Africa to Malaya. Later in the 14th century the port was looted by Khilji general Malik Kafur, and the capitol was shifted to Chandor and then back to Gopakapattna because of Muhammad bin Tughluq's attack on Chandor.
In the year 150AD, Vashishtiputra Satakarni was defeated by his son-in-law, the Kshatrapa King Rudradaman I who established his rule over Goa. This dynasty ruled the territory until 249AD. Thereafter the dynasty's power seems to have been weakened by their generals, the Abhiras
Bhojas
First existing as vassals of the Mauryan Empire and later as an independent empire, the Bhojas ruled Goa for more than 500 years, annexing the entirety of Goa. The earliest known record of the Bhoja Empire from Goa dates from the 3 rd century BC, it was found in the town of Shiroda in Goa. According to Puranik, by tradition the Bhojas belonged to the clan of Yadavas, who may have migrated to Goa via Dwaraka after the Mahabharata war. Two Bhoja copperplates grants dating back 3rd century BC were unearthed from Bandora village,written by King Prithvimallavarman. Many other copper plates, have also been recovered from other places in Goa which date from 3rd century BC to 8th century AD. Ancient Chandrapur, modern day Chandor, was the capital of the Bhoja Empire; the Bhojas ruled Goa, Belgaum and North Canara.
From the Bhoja inscriptions found in Goa and Konkan, it is evidenced that the Bhojas used Sanskrit and Prakrit for administration. According to Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri, many Brahminsand Vaishyas arrived with Kshatriyas Bhojas from the north. The Kshatriya Bhojas patronized Buddhism and employed many Buddhist converts of Greek and Persian origin. goan history₨100
Medieval period
Goa was ruled by several dynasties of various origins from 1st century BC to 1500 AD.Since Goa had been under the sway of several dynasties there was no organised judicial or policing system prevalent in those days, except for traditional arrangements governed by absolute rulers and local chieftains. Muslim rule may have brought a little more order than before. During this time, Goa was not ruled as a singular kingdom. Parts of this territory were ruled by several different kingdoms. The boundaries of these kingdoms were not clearly defined and the kings were content to consider their dominions as extending over many villages, which paid tribute and owed them allegiance.
| Name of the ruler | Reign |
|---|---|
| Indo-Parthians | 2-4th century AD |
| Abhiras,Batapuras, Bhojas | 4-6th century AD |
| Chalukyas of Badami | 6-8th century AD |
| Rashtrakutas of Malkhed | 8-10th century AD |
| Kadambas | 1006-1356 AD |
| Yadavas of Devagiri | 12th and 13th century AD |
| Vijayanagar Empire | 14th and 15th century AD |
| Bahmani Sultanate | 15th century |
This was a tumultuous period in Goan history. The Goa Shilahara power was waning and the Arab traders gained increasing control of the overseas trade and enjoyed autonomy from the Shilaharas. In order to control this decline, Kadamba King Guhalladeva I, ruling from Chandor only, established secular, political, and economic partnerships with these Arab states. After the Chalukyas defeated the Rashtrakutas, exploiting this situation to their advantage the Kadamba King Shashthadeva II firmly planted his rule in Goa.
The Kadambas of Goa
The Kadambas ruled Goa over 10th to 14th century AD. In the beginning the Kadambas ruled only Sashti and a small part of Konkan. They ruled from Chandor, over a large part, but the port of Gopakapattana was not a part in the beginning. The Goa Kadambas were the later scions of the main Kadamba Dynasty, whose modern descendants still live in Goa.
Later King Shashthadeva conquered the island of Goa such as the port Gopakpattana and Kapardikadvipa, and annexed a large part of South Konkan to his kingdom, and made Gopakpattana as his secondary capital. The next King Jayakeshi I further expanded the Goan kingdom. Sanskrit Jain text Dvayashraya mentions the extent of his capital. Port Gopakapattna had trade contacts with Zanzibar, Bengal,Gujarat and Sri Lanka(mentioned as Zaguva,Gauda,Gurjara,Simhala in the Sanskrit text). The city has been described in the contemporary records not only as aesthetically pleasing, but spiritually cleansing as well. On account of its commercial nature, Gopakapattna possessed a cosmopolitan look. The capital was served by an important highway called Rajvithi or Rajpath which linked it with Ela, the ruins of which can still be seen. For more than 300 years it remained a nucleus of intra-coastal and trans-oceanic trade from Africa to Malaya. Later in the 14th century the port was looted by Khilji general Malik Kafur, and the capitol was shifted to Chandor and then back to Gopakapattna because of Muhammad bin Tughluq's attack on Chandor.
The port of Goapakapattna
Guhalladeva III,Jayakeshi II, Shivachitta Paramadideva, Vinshuchitta II and Jayakeshi III dominated Goa's political scene in the 12th century. During the rule of Kadambas, the name and fame of Goapuri had reached it zenith. Goa's religion, culture, trade and arts flourished under the rule of these kings. The Kings and their queens built many Shiva temples as they were devote Shaivites. They assumed titles like Konkanadhipati,Saptakotisha Ladbha Varaveera,Gopakapura varadhishva,Konkanmahacharavarti,Panchamahashabda. ] The Kings had matrimonial relationships with the Kings of Saurashtra, and even the local chieftains. The Kings patronized Vedic religion and performed major fire sacrifices like the horse sacrifice or Ashvamedha. They popularised Shaivsm in Goa.
Though their language of administration was Sanskrit and Kannada, Konkani and Marathi were also prevalent. They introduced Kannada language to Goa, which had a very profound influence on the local tongue. Nagari script, Kadamba script, Halekannada script andGoykanadi scripts were very popular. It is known from another inscription of Kadamba Tribhuvanamalla, saka 1028 or AD 1106, that he established a Brahmapuri at Gopaka. ]Brahmapuris were ancient universities run by the Brahmins where the Vedas, astrology, philosophy, medicine, and other miscellaneous subjects were studied.(see:Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district Volume 1). Such Brahampuris were found in many places in Goa, Savoi verem, Gauli moula and other places.
Kadambas ruled Goa for more than 400 years until they lost power to Devagiri Yadavas. After the Muslim invasions, the Kadamba Dynasty was lost forever. Ruins of the palaces, mansions, temples and markets can be still seen in Chandor village.
Muslim conquest and rule
In 1350 AD, Goa was conquered by the Bahmani Sultanate. However in 1370, the Vijayanagar empire, a resurgent Hindu empire situated at modern day Hampi, reconquered the area. The Vijayanagar rulers held on to Goa for nearly a century, during which time its harbours were important port of arrival for Arabian horses on their way to Hampi to strengthen the Vijaynagar cavalry. In 1469 Goa was reconquered by the Bahmani Sultans of Gulbarga. When this Sultanate broke up in 1492, Goa became a part of Adil Shah's Bijapur Sultanate, which established Goa Velha as its second capital. The former Secretariat building in Panaji is a former Adil Shahi palace, later taken over by the Portuguese Viceroys as their official residence.
Portuguese conquest and colonisation
In 1498, Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed at Calicut. In 1510, Portuguese admiral Afonso de Albuquerque attacked Goa at the behest of the local cheftian Thimayya. After losing the city briefly to its former ruler, Ismail Adil Shah, the Muslim King of Bijapur, Albuquerque returned in force on November 25, with a fully renovated fleet. In less than a day, the Portuguese fleet took possession of Goa from Ismail Adil Shah and his Ottoman allies, who surrendered on December 10. It is estimated that 6,000 of the 9,000 Muslim defenders of the city died, either in the battle in the streets or while trying to escape. He gained the support of the Hindu population, although this frustrated the initial expectations Thimayya who aspired to gain the city. Afonso de Albuquerque rewarded him by appointing him chief "Aguazil" of the city, an administrator and representative of the Hindu and Muslim people and as a learned interpreter of the local customs. de Albuquerque then made an agreement to lower yearly dues and taxes. In spite of constant attacks, Goa became the center of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighboring kingdoms, the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut dispatched embassies, offering alliances and local concessions to be fortified.
In Goa Albuquerque started the first Portuguese mint in the East, after complaints from merchants and Timoja about the scarcity of currency, taking it as an opportunity to announce the territorial conquest. The new coin, based on the existing local coins, bore a cross on one side and the design of an armillary sphere (or "esfera"), King Manuel's badge, on the reverse. Gold, silver and bronze coins were issued, respectively gold cruzados ormanueis, esperas and alf-esperas, and "leais". More mints would follow in Malacca in 1511.
Goa was the base for Albuquerque's conquest of Malacca in 1511 and Hormuz in 1515. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, distinct from the fortified factories established in certain Indian seaports. Goa was made capital of the Portuguese Vice-Kingdom in Asia, and the other Portuguese possessions in India, Malacca and other bases in Indonesia, East Timor, the Persian Gulf, Macau in China and trade bases in Japan were under the suzerainty of its Viceroy. By mid–16th century, the area under occupation had expanded to most of present-day limits.
Albuquerque and his successors left the customs and constitutions of the thirty village communities on the island almost untouched, only abolishing the rite of sati, or widow-burning. A register of these customs (Foral de usos e costumes) was published in 1526; it is among the most valuable historical documents pertaining to Goan customs.
Goa was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the governor even proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament representing all parts of the Portuguese east, but this was rejected by the King.
The Portuguese set up a base in Goa to further consolidate their control the spice trade. Goods from all parts of the East were displayed in its bazaar, and separate streets were designated for the sale of different classes of goods — Bahrain pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, and drugs and spices from the Malay Archipelago.
In 1542, St. Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625. Travellers marvelled at Goa Dourada, or Golden Goa, and there was a Portuguese proverb, "He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon."
Almost all manual labor was performed by slaves; common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and it was even customary for the poor noblemen who congregated in boarding-houses to subscribe for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and with a proper escort.
In the main street, slaves were sold by auction. The houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work. The social life of Goa's rulers befitted the capitol of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; luxury and ostentation became a byword before the end of the 16th century.
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting within the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774–1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of Roman Catholic Christianity in India both by Christians and non-Christians alike. Based on the records that survive, H. P. Salomon and I. S. D. Sassoon state that between the Inquisition's beginning in 1561 and its temporary abolition in 1774, some 16,202 persons were brought to trial by the Inquisition. Of this number, it is known that 57 were sentenced to death and executed in person; another 64 were burned in effigy. Others were subjected to lesser punishments or penanced, but the fate of many of the Inquisition's victims is unknown. The Inquisition was established to punish relapsed New Christians – Jews and Muslims who converted to Catholicism, as well as their descendants – who were now suspected of practicing their ancestral religion in secret. In Goa the Inquisition also turned its attention to Indian converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have returned to their original ways. In addition, the Inquisition prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the observance of Hindu or Muslim rites or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. While its ostensible aim was to preserve the Catholic faith, the Inquisition was used against Indian Catholics and Hindus as an instrument of social control, as well as a method of confiscating victims' property and enriching the Inquisitors. Most of the Goa Inquisition's records were destroyed after its abolition in 1812, and it is thus impossible to know the exact number of the Inquisition's victims.
Around 1583, missionary activity in Cuncolim first led to small skirmishes and finally to the murder of all the missionaries. The Portuguese authorities called the sixteen chieftains of each ward or vado of the Cuncolim village to the Assolna Fort, ostensibly to form a peace pact with the villagers. At the fort the chieftains were slain, except for two who jumped from the fort into the Arabian Sea and presumably swam to Karwar. The villagers were left without their traditional leaders while the Portuguese began confiscating the land of the locals and initiated the Goa Inquisition.
Decline
The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639, the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets, though never captured. In 1635 Goa was ravaged by an epidemic. With the situation already volatile, Maratha troops entered parts of Bicholim in 1641 and began the minor Bicholim conflict, which ended in peace treaty between the Portuguese and Maratha Empire.
Trade was gradually monopolised by the Jesuits. Jean de Thévenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in 1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and decay. After escaping from Agra, Shivajislowly started gaining the areas which he lost in Treaty of Purendar to Moghuls. In this he conquered most of the area adjoining to Old Conquestas of Goa. He captured Pernem, Bicholim,Sattari, Ponda, Sanguem, Quepem, Cancona. Sawantwadi Bonsale and Saudekar Rajas became his vassals. In 1683 Chatrapati Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji, tried to conquer the entirety of Goa, including the areas in then in Portuguese control. He almost ousted the Portuguese, but to their surprise a Mughal army prevented the city's capture by the Marathas. In 1739 the whole territory of Bardez was attacked by the Marathas again in order to pressure the northern Portuguese possession at Vasai, but the conquest could not be completed because of the unexpected arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet.
Following the Third Battle of Panipat, Peshawa control over Maratha Empire was weakened. The Portuguese then defeated Rajas of Sawantwadi and Raja of Sunda to conquer area stretched from Pernem till Cancona. This formed the Novas Conquistas and thus the present day Goa is formed.
In the same year the viceroy transferred his residence from the vicinity of Goa city to New Goa (in Portuguese Nova Goa), today's Panaji, which became the official seat of government in 1843 and effecting a move which had been discussed as early as 1684. Old Goa city's population fell steeply during the 18th century as Europeans moved to the new city.
In 1757, King Joseph I of Portugal issued a decree penned by his prime minister, the Marquês de Pombal, granting the Portuguese citizenship and representation to all subjects in the Portuguese Indies. The enclaves of Goa, Damão, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli became collectively known as the Estado da Índia Portuguesa, and had representation in the Portuguese parliament.
In 1787, there was a rebellion started by some priests against Portuguese rule. It became famous as the Conspiracy of the Pintos. Goa was peacefully occupied by the British between 1812-1815 in the context of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance during the Napoleonic Wars.
During the tenure of Marquês de Pombal, the Act of 1761 was promulgated whereby all Portuguese subjects born in Portuguese India were considered Portuguese citizens, and as such, Goans had the right to elect their representatives to the Portuguese Parliament. The first election was held in Goa on 14 Jan 1822, electing 3 locals as members of Parliament.
The Second World War
Because Portugal stayed neutral in the Second World War, Goa was too. As a result, at the outbreak of hostilities a number of Axis ships sought refuge in Goa rather than face the likelihood of interception by the British Royal Navy. There were three German ships, the Ehrenfels, the Drachenfels and the Braunfels, as well as an Italian ship. The British discovered that the Ehrenfels was transmitting information on Allied ship movements to U-boats in the Indian Ocean, with extremely damaging consequences for British shipping.
Because Portugal was neutral the British was unable to take any official action against these ships, however the SOE Indian mission organised a covert raid using members of the Calcutta Light Horse, a part-time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service. The Light Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, the Phoebe, and sailed round India to Goa, where they sunk the Ehrenfels, and the other ships scuttled themselves, fearing that they were about to be seized.
The story of this raid was the subject of James Leasor's book, Boarding Party, which in turn was made into a film, The Sea Wolves, starring Gregory Peck, David Niven and Roger Moore in 1980. Because of the potential political ramifications of the fact that Britain had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until James Leasor's book was published in 1978
After the independence of India
When India became independent in 1947, Goa remained under Portuguese control. The Indian government of Jawaharlal Nehru insisted that Goa, along with a few other minor Portuguese holdings, be turned over to India. However, Portugal refused. France, on the other hand, which also had small enclaves in India (most notably Pondicherry), surrendered all its Indian possessions relatively quickly.
In 1954, unarmed Indians took over the tiny land-locked enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. This incident led the Portuguese to lodge a complaint against India in the International Court of Justice at The Hague. The final judgement on this case, given in 1960, held that the Portuguese had a right to the enclaves, but that India equally had a right to deny Portugal access to the enclaves over Indian territory.
In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians, the Satyagrahis demonstrated against Portugal. At least twenty-two of them were killed by Portuguese gunfire.
Later the same year, the Satyagrahis took over a fort at Tiracol and hoisted the Indian flag. They were driven away by the Portuguese with a number of casualties. On 1 September 1955, the Indian consulate in Goa was closed. Also in 1955, Nehru declared that his government would not tolerate Portuguese presence in Goa. India then instituted a blockade against Goa, Damão, and Diu in an effort to force a Portuguese departure. Goa was then given its own airline by the Portuguese, the Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa to overcome the blockade.
On December 16, 1961, Indian troops crossed the border into Goa. 'Operation Vijay' involved sustained land, sea, and air strikes for more than 36 hours; it resulted in the unconditional surrender of Portuguese forces on December 19. A United Nations resolution condemning the invasion was proposed by the United States and the United Kingdom in the United Nations Security Council, but it was vetoed by the USSR. Under Indian rule, Goan voters went to the polls in a referendum and voted to become an autonomous, federally administered territory. Goa was admitted to Indian statehood in 1987.
After re-joining India, the territory of Goa was under military rule for five months, however the previous civil service was soon restored and the area became a federally administered territory. Goa celebrates its "Liberation Day" on December 19 every year, which is also a state holiday.