The culture of Kerala is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed and mixed for centuries, under influences from other parts of India and abroad. It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the Malayali people. Modern Kerala society took shape owing to migrations from different parts of India throughout Classical Antiquity. Kerala trace its non-prehistoric cultural genesis to its membership (around the 3rd century CE) in a vaguely defined historical region known as Thamizhagom — a land defined by a common Tamil culture and encompassing the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms. At that time, the music, dance, language (first Dravida Bhasha — "Dravidian language" — then Tamil), andSangam (a vast corpus of Tamil literature composed between 1,500–2,000 years ago) found in Kerala were all similar to that found in the rest ofThamizhagom (today's Tamil Nadu). The culture of Kerala evolved through the Sanskritization of Dravidian ethos, revivalism of religious movements andreform movements against caste discrimination. Kerala showcases a culture unique to itself developed through accommodation, acculturation and assimilation of various faculties of civilized lifestyle.
Performing arts
Native traditions of classical performing arts include koodiyattom, a form of Sanskrit drama or theatre and a UNESCO-designated Human Heritage Art. katakhalei (from katerumbu' ("story") andkali ("performance")) is a 500-year-old form of dance-drama that interprets ancient epics; a popularized offshoot of kathakali is Kerala natanam (developed in the 20th century by dancer Guru Gopinath). Meanwhile, koothu is a more light-hearted performance mode, akin to modern stand-up comedy; an ancient art originally confined to temple sanctuaries, it was later popularized byMani Madhava Chakyar. Other Keralite performing arts include mohiniyaattam ("dance of the enchantress"), which is a type of graceful choreographed dance performed by women and accompanied by musical vocalizations. Thullal, padayani, and theyyam are other important Keralite arts.
Kerala also has several tribal and folk art forms. For example, Kummattikali is the famous colorful mask-dance of South Malabar, performed during the festival of Onam. The Kannyar Kali dances (also known as Desathukali) are fast moving, militant dances attuned to rhythmic devotional folk songs and asuravadyas. Also important are various performance genres that are Islam- or Christianity-themed. These include oppana, which is widely popular among Keralite Muslims and is native to Malabar. Oppana incorporates group dance accompanied by the beat of rhythmic hand clapping and ishal vocalizations.
Margam Kali is one of the ancient round group dance of Kerala practiced by Saint Thomas Christians
However, many of these native art forms largely play to tourists or at youth festivals, and are not as popular among ordinary Keralites. Thus, more contemporary forms — including those heavily based on the use of often risqué and politically incorrect mimicry and parody — have gained considerable mass appeal in recent years. Indeed, contemporary artists often use such modes to mock socioeconomic elites. In recent decades, Malayalam cinema, yet another mode of widely popular artistic expression, have provided a distinct and indigenous Keralite alternative to both Bollywood and Hollywood.
Music
The ragas and talas of lyrical and devotional carnatic music — another native product of South India — dominates Keralite classical musical genres. Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma, a 19th-century king of Travancore and patron and composer of music, was instrumental in popularising carnatic music in early Kerala. Additionally, Kerala has its own native music system, sopanam, which is a lugubrious and step-by-step rendition of raga-based songs. It is sopanam, for example, that provides the background music used in kathakali. The wider traditional music of Kerala also includes melam (including the paandi and panchari variants), as style of percussive music performed at temple-centered festivals using an instrument known as the chenda. Up to 150 musicians may comprise the ensembles staging a given performance; each performance, in turn, may last up to four hours. Panchavadyam is a differing type of percussion ensemble consisting of five types of percussion instruments; these can be utilised by up to one hundred artists in certain major festivals. In addition to these, percussive music is also associated with various uniquely Keralite folk arts forms. Lastly, the popular music of Kerala — as in the rest of India — is dominated by the filmi music of Indian cinema.
Martial arts and sports
Kerala also has its own indigenous form of martial art — Kalarippayattu, derived from the words kalari ("place", "threshing floor", or "battlefield") and payattu ("exercise" or "practice"). Influenced by both Kerala’s Brahminical past and Ayurvedic medicine, kalaripayattu is attributed by oral tradition to Parasurama. After some two centuries of suppression by British colonial authorities, it is now experiencing strong comeback among Keralites while also steadily gaining worldwide attention. Other popular ritual arts include theyyam and poorakkali — these originate from northern Malabar, which is the northernmost part of Kerala. Nevertheless, these have in modern times been largely supplanted by more popular sports such as cricket, kabaddi, soccer, badminton, and others. 'Kochi Tuskers Kerala' playing in the Indian Premier League (IPL) is from Kerala. Kerala is home of the football clubs Viva Kerala and FC Kochin Literature
Malayalam literature is ancient in origin, and includes such figures as the 14th century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. The Triumvirate of poets (Kavithrayam: Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer) are recognized for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics and towards a more lyrical mode. Later, such contemporary writers as Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy(whose 1996 semi-autobiographical bestseller The God of Small Things is set in the Kottayam town of Ayemenem) have garnered international recognition. From 1970 to early 1990s, a lot of Malayalam Novelists and story writers contributed to the Literature of Kerala. The contributions from OV Vijayan, CV Sriraman, T Padmanabhan, Sethu, Perumbatavam Sreedharan, Kovilan have been remarkable. Significant contributions from poets and song writers such as P. Bhaskaran and ONV Kurup have influenced contemporary literature. Critics such as M Krishnan Nair have added value by providing critical analysis on the books written during the recent past.
Calendar
Kerala also has an indigenous ancient solar calendar — the Malayalam calendar — which is used in various communities primarily for timing agricultural and religious activities.
Elephants in Kerala culture
The elephants are an integral part of the daily life in Kerala. These Indian elephants are given a prestigious place in the state's culture. Elephants in Kerala are often referred to as the 'sons of the sahya'. The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the Government of Kerala. Sarpa kavu(Sacred Grove of the Serpent)
Sarpa Kavu (meaning Sacred Grove of the Serpent) is a typically small traditional grove of trees seen in the Kerala state of South India. These pristine groves usually have representations of several Naga Devatas (serpent gods), which were worshipped by the joint families or taravads. This was part ofNagaradhana (snake worship) which was prevalent among keralites during past centuries. It had been practised by Ezhavas, Nairs, Arayas and many other tribal, non-tribal and costal communities all over the Malabar Coast in south India.
Temple Festivals
Kerala has a large number of temples. The temples celebrate annual festivals which are not only unique to the region but sometimes have features that are unique to each temple. Each temple describes each interesting history behind its creation.
The major Hindu temple festivals in the state are Makaravilakku at Sabarimala, Thrissur Pooram, Attukal Pongala in Trivandrum's famous AttukalTemple,Vrishchikotsavam in Tripunithura Sree Poornathrayeesa temple, Utsavams in Padmanabha swami temple at Trivandrum, Ashtami at Vaikom temple, Kodungalloor Bharani, Chettikulangara Bharani at Mavelikkara, Guruvayoor Anayottam, Chottanikkara Makam and Sivarathri festival in Aluvatemple and Padanilam temple at Mavelikkara
ECONOMICS IN KERALA
Service industry dominates the Kerala economy. Kerala leads many other Indian states and territories in terms of per capita GDP(74,620 INR States of India by size of economy) and economic productivity and Kerala's Human Development Index is the best in India. According to the Global Hunger Index 2008, the severity of hunger situation in Kerala is "serious", which is better than the grade "alarming" received by many Indian states. Kerala's low GDP and productivity figures juxtaposed with higher development figures than in most Indian states — is often dubbed the "Kerala Phenomenon" or the "Kerala Model" of development by economists, political scientists, and sociologists. This phenomenon arises mainly from Kerala's unusually strong service sector. Some describe Kerala's economy as a "democratic socialist welfare state". Some, such as Financial Express, use the term "Money Order Economy".Kerala's economic progress is above the national average. But relatively few major corporations and manufacturing plants are headquartered in Kerala.
The 2011 census shows Kerala's HDI to be 0.920, which is higher than that of most developed countries.
Around 30 lakh Keralites are working abroad mainly in Persian Gulf; migration to where started with the Kerala Gulf boom. So the Kerala Economy is largely dependent on remittancesm. Irudaya Rajan describes the situation as "Remittances from global capitalism are carrying the whole Kerala economy". Unemployment recently dropped from a large 19.1% in 2003 to 9.4% in 2007 & only 4.2% in 2011 . Underemployment, low employability of youths, and a 13.5% female participation rate are chronic issues. One concern is that Kerala government is running some of the highest deficits in India.
This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product of Kerala at market prices estimated by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees. Macro-economic trend
| Year | Gross State Domestic Product |
|---|---|
| 1980 | 42,860 |
| 1985 | 75,200 |
| 1990 | 140,980 |
| 1995 | 387,620 |
| 2000 | 697,920 |
| 2005 | 1,025,080 |
The state's debt was estimated at 56 per cent of GDP in 2005.
Alcohol
Kerala produces 97% of national output of pepper and accounts for 85% out of the area under natural rubber in the country. Coconut,tea, coffee, cashew, and spices — including cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg — comprise a critical agricultural sector. A key agricultural staple is rice, with some six hundred varieties grown in Kerala's extensive paddy fields.Nevertheless, home gardenscomprise a significant portion of the agricultural sector. Related animal husbandry is also important, and is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalized, and the landless. Feeding, milking, breeding, management, health care, and concomitant micro-enterprises all provide work for around 32 lakh (3.2 million) of Kerala's 55 lakh (5.5 million) households.The state government seeks to promote such activity via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the "Sunandini"
The state government holds a monopoly over liquor sale in the state, after the state banned foreign liquor shops, through the government owned Kerala State Beverages Corporation (KSBC). Every year, liquor sales have been rising and the total sales of liquor and beer during 2010-11 fiscal year is expected to be about Rs. 6,700 crore.
Tourism
Kerala is an established tourist destination for both Indians and non-Indians alike. Tourists mostly visit such attractions as the beaches at Kovalam,Cherai, Kappad, Muzhuppilangad and Varkala, the hill stations of Munnar, Nelliampathi, Wayanad and Ponmudi, and national parks and wildlife sanctuaries such as Periyar and Eravikulam National Park. The "backwaters" region — an extensive network of interlocking rivers, lakes, and canals that center on Alleppey, Kumarakom, and Punnamada — also see heavy tourist traffic. Examples of Keralite architecture, such as the Padmanabhapuram Palace, Malik Deenar Mosque Kasaragod are also visited. The city of Kochiranks, also known as the "Queen of the Arabian Sea" has the highest number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala. The capital city Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode (Land of Zamorins) and Alappuzha(called the "Venice of the East") are also popular destinations. Tourism plays an important role in the state's economy.
BSE listed Kerala companies- 1) Muthoot
- 2) State Bank of Travancore
- 3) Federal Bank
- 4) Dhanlaxmi Bank
- 5) South Indian Bank
- 5) Cochin Minerals and Rutile Limited
- 6) Kerala Solvent Extractions Ltd
- 7) Manappuram General Finance and Leasing Ltd
- 8) Muthoot Finance
- 9) Harrisons Malayalam
- 10) ESAF Microfinance and Investments
- 11) Accel Transmatic Limited
- 12) Geojit BNP Paribas
- 13) GTN Textiles Limited
- 14) Kitex Garments
- 15) Nitta Gelatin India Ltd
- 16) Eastern Traders
- 17) Rubfila International
- 18) Kerala Ayurveda Ltd
- 19) Vertex Securities Ltd
- 20) V-Guard Industries Ltd
- 21) Sree Sakthi Paper Mills
- 22) AVT Natural Products Foreign remittances
In a state of 32 million where unemployment approaches 20 percent, one out of six employed Keralite now works overseas. As of 2008, the Gulf countries altogether have a Keralite population of more than 2.5 million, who send home annually a sum of USD 6.81 billion,which is more than 15.13% of Remittance to India in 2008. The largest number work in construction, although high literacy allows Keralites to secure office work. Foreign remittances augment the state’s economic output by nearly 25 percent. Migrants’ families are three times as likely as those of nonmigrants to live in superior housing, and about twice as likely to have telephones, refrigerators and cars.
Banking
Kerala is the single largest originator of education loans for the country as a whole.Total disbursal of education loans amount to Rs 6,000 crore.
Productivity is a measure of the efficiency of production. Productivity is a ratio of production output to what is required to produce it (inputs). The measure of productivity is defined as a total output per one unit of a total input. InfrastractureThese definitions are short but too general and insufficient to make the phenomenon productivity understandable. A more detailed theory of productivity is needed, which explains the phenomenon productivity and makes it comprehensible. In order to obtain a measurable form of productivity, operationalization of the concept is necessary. In explaining and operationalizing a set of production models are used. A production model is a numerical expression of the production process that is based on production data, i.e. measured data in the form of prices and quantities of inputs and outputs.It is advisable to examine any phenomenon whatsoever only after defining the entity the phenomenon under review forms part of. Hence, productivity cannot be examined as a phenomenon independently but it is necessary to identify the entity it belongs to. Such an entity is defined as production process.The benefits of high productivity are manifold. At the national level, productivity growth raises living standards because more real income improves people's ability to purchase goods and services, enjoy leisure, improve housing and education and contribute to social and environmental programs. Productivity growth is important to the firm because more real income means that the firm can meet its (perhaps growing) obligations to customers, suppliers, workers, shareholders, and governments (taxes and regulation), and still remain competitive or even improve its competitiveness in the market place
Kerala has 145,704 km of roads (4.2% of India's total). This translates into about 4.62 km of road per thousand population, compared to an all-India average of 2.59 km. Virtually all of Kerala's villages are connected by road. Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Total road length in Kerala increased by 5% between 2003-2004. The road density in Kerala is nearly four times the national average, and is a reflection of Kerala's unique settlement patterns. India's national highway network includes a Kerala-wide total of 1,524 km, which is only 2.6% of the national total. There are eight designated national highways in the state. Upgrading and maintenance of 1,600 km of state highways and major district roads have been taken up under the Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS). Kerala ranks second nationwide in diesel-based thermal electricity generation with national market share of over 21%.
Characteristics of production
- The satisfaction of needs originates from the use of the commodities which are produced. The need satisfaction increases when the quality-price-ratio of the commodities improves and more satisfaction is achieved at less cost. Improving the quality-price-ratio of commodities is to a producer an essential way to enhance the production performance but this kind of gains distributed to customers cannot be measured with production data.Economic well-being also increases due to the growth of incomes that are gained from the more efficient production. The most important forms of production are market production, public production and production in households. In order to understand the origin of the economic well-being we must understand these three processes. All of them have production functions of their own which interact with each other. Market production is the prime source of economic well-being and therefore the “primus motor” of the economy. Productivity is in this economic system the most important feature and an essential source of incomes. Main processes of a producing company A producing company can be divided into sub-processes in different ways; yet, the following five are identified as main processes, each with a logic, objectives, theory and key figures of its own. It is important to examine each of them individually, yet, as a part of the whole, in order to be able to measure and understand them. The main processes of a company are as follows: Productivity is created in the real process, productivity gains are distributed in the income distribution process and these two processes constitute the production process. The production process and its sub-processes, the real process and income distribution process occur simultaneously, and only the production process is identifiable and measurable by the traditional accounting practices. The real process and income distribution process can be identified and measured by extra calculation, and this is why they need to be analysed separately in order to understand the logic of production performance.real process income distribution process production process monetary process market value process Real process generates the production output from input, and it can be described by means of the production function. It refers to a series of events in production in which production inputs of different quality and quantity are combined into products of different quality and quantity. Products can be physical goods, immaterial services and most often combinations of both. The characteristics created into the product by the manufacturer imply surplus value to the consumer, and on the basis of the price this value is shared by the consumer and the producer in the marketplace. This is the mechanism through which surplus value originates to the consumer and the producer likewise. It is worth noting that surplus values to customers cannot be measured from any production data. Instead the surplus value to a producer can be measured. It can be expressed both in terms of nominal and real values. The real surplus value to the producer is a result of the real process, real income, and measured proportionally it means productivity Income distribution process of the production refers to a series of events in which the unit prices of constant-quality products and inputs alter causing a change in income distribution among those participating in the exchange. The magnitude of the change in income distribution is directly proportionate to the change in prices of the output and inputs and to their quantities. Productivity gains are distributed, for example, to customers as lower product sales prices or to staff as higher income pay.
Economic growth Economic growth is defined as a production increase of an output of a production process. It is usually expressed as a growth percentage depicting growth of the real production output. The real output is the real value of products produced in a production process and when we subtract the real input from the real output we get the real income. The real output and the real income are generated by the real process of production from the real inputs. The real process can be described by means of the production function. The production function is a graphical or mathematical expression showing the relationship between the inputs used in production and the output achieved. Both graphical and mathematical expressions are presented and demonstrated. The production function is a simple description of the mechanism of economic growth. Real economic growth consists of two components. These components are an increase in production input and an increase in productivity.
Production is a process of combining various material inputs and immaterial inputs (plans, know-how) in order to make something for consumption (the output). The methods of combining the inputs of production in the process of making output are called technology. Technology can be depicted mathematically by the production function which describes the relation between input and output. The production function can be used as a measure of relative performance when comparing technologies The figure illustrates an economic growth process (exaggerated for clarity). The Value T2 (value at time 2) represents the growth in output from Value T1 (value at time 1). Each time of measurement has its own graph of the production function for that time (the straight lines). The output measured at time 2 is greater than the output measured at time one for both of the components of growth: an increase of inputs and an increase of productivity. The portion of growth caused by the increase in inputs is shown on line 1 and does not change the relation between inputs and outputs. The portion of growth caused by an increase in productivity is shown on line 2 with a steeper slope. So increased productivity represents greater output per unit of input. In the case of a single production process (described above) the output is defined as an economic value of products and services produced in the process. When we want to examine an entity of many production processes we have to sum up the value-added created in the single processes. This is done in order to avoid the double accounting of intermediate inputs. Value-added is obtained by subtracting the intermediate inputs from the outputs. The most well-known and used measure of value-added is the GDP (Gross Domestic Product). It is widely used as a measure of the economic growth of nations and industries.
Production performance Economic growth measures the growth of production output and, therefore, it is only a rough indicator of economic welfare. It does not reveal anything about the performance of the production process. The performance of production measures production’s ability to generate income. Because the income from production is generated in the real process, we call it the real income. Similarly, as the production function is an expression of the real process, we could also call it “income generated by the production function”. The real income generation follows the logic of the production function. Two components can also be distinguished in the income change: the income growth caused by an increase in production input (production volume) and the income growth caused by an increase in productivity. The income growth caused by increased production volume is determined by moving along the production function graph. The income growth corresponding to a shift of the production function is generated by the increase in productivity. The change of real income so signifies a move from the point 1 to the point 2 on the production function (above). When we want to maximize the production performance we have to maximize the income generated by the production function The production performance can be measured as a relative or an absolute income. Expressing performance both in relative (rel.) and absolute (abs.) quantities is helpful for understanding the welfare effects of production. For measurement of the relative production performance, we use the known productivity ratio Real output / Real input. The absolute income of performance is obtained by subtracting the real input from the real output as follows:
- Real income (abs.) = Real output – Real input
Production models A practical example illustrates the case. When a jobless person obtains a job in market production we may assume it is a low productivity job. As a result average productivity decreases but the real income per capita increases. Furthermore the well-being of the society also grows. This example reveals the difficulty to interpret the total productivity change correctly. The combination of volume increase and total productivity decrease leads in this case to the improved performance because we are on the “diminishing returns” area of the production function. If we are on the part of “increasing returns” on the production function, the combination of production volume increase and total productivity increase leads to improved production performance. Unfortunately we do not know in practice on which part of the production function we are. Therefore a correct interpretation of a performance change is obtained only by measuring the real income change.
We use here arithmetical models because they are like the models of management accounting, illustrative and easily understood and applied in practice. Furthermore they are integrated to management accounting, which is a practical advantage. A major advantage of the arithmetical model is its capability to depict productivity as a part of production process. Consequently productivity can be understood, measured, and examined as a part of production process. A production model is a numerical description of the production process and is based on the prices and the quantities of inputs and outputs. There are two main approaches to operationalize the concept productivity. We can use mathematical formulae, which are typically used in macroeconomics (in growth accounting) or arithmetical models, which are typically used in microeconomics and management accounting. We do not present the former approach here but refer to the survey “Growth accounting” by Hulten 2009. There are different production models according to different interests. Here we use a production income model, a productivity model and a growth accounting model in order to demonstrate productivity as a phenomenon and a measureable quantity.
Production income modelThe table presents a surplus value calculation. We call this set of production data a basic example and we use the data through the article in illustrative production models. The basic example is a simplified profitability calculation used for illustration and modelling. Even as reduced, it comprises all phenomena of a real measuring situation and most importantly the change in the output-input mix between two periods. Hence, the basic example works as an illustrative “scale model” of production without any features of a real measuring situation being lost. In practice, there may be hundreds of products and inputs but the logic of measuring does not differ from that presented in the basic example. The scale of success run by a going concern is manifold, and there are no criteria that might be universally applicable to success. Nevertheless, there is one criterion by which we can generalise the rate of success in production. This criterion is the ability to produce surplus value. As a criterion of profitability, surplus value refers to the difference between returns and costs, taking into consideration the costs of equity in addition to the costs included in the profit and loss statement as usual. Surplus value indicates that the output has more value than the sacrifice made for it, in other words, the output value is higher than the value (production costs) of the used inputs. If the surplus value is positive, the owner’s profit expectation has been surpassed. In this context we define the quality requirements for the production data used in productivity accounting. The most important criterion of good measurement is the homogenous quality of the measurement object. If the object is not homogenous, then the measurement result may include changes in both quantity and quality but their respective shares will remain unclear. In productivity accounting this criterion requires that every item of output and input must appear in accounting as being homogenous. In other words the inputs and the outputs are not allowed to be aggregated in measuring and accounting. If they are aggregated, they are no longer homogenous and hence the measurement results may be biased. Both the absolute and relative surplus value have been calculated in the example. Absolute value is the difference of the output and input values and the relative value is their relation, respectively. The surplus value calculation in the example is at a nominal price, calculated at the market price of each period.
The production is on the part of “increasing returns” on the production function, when
Objective functions An efficient way to improve the understanding of production performance is to formulate different objective functions according to the objectives of the different interest groups. Formulating theobjective function necessitates defining the variable to be maximized (or minimized). After that other variables are considered as constraints. The most familiar objective function is profit maximization which is also included in this case. Profit maximization is an objective function that stems from the owner’s interest and all other variables are constraints in relation to maximizing of profits.
Maximizing the real income The procedure for formulating different objective functions, in terms of the production model, is introduced next. In the income formation from production the following objective functions can be identified: Maximizing the producer income Maximizing the owner income. These cases are illustrated using the numbers from the basic example. The following symbols are used in the presentation: = signifies the starting point of the computation or the result of computing and + / - signifies a variable that is to be added or subtracted from the function. A producer means here the producer community, i.e. labour force, society and owners. Objective function formulations can be expressed in a single calculation which concisely illustrates the logic of the income generation, the income distribution and the variables to be maximized. The calculation resembles an income statement starting with the income generation and ending with the income distribution. The income generation and the distribution are always in balance so that their amounts are equal. In this case it is 58.12 units. The income which has been generated in the real process is distributed to the stakeholders during the same period. There are three variables which can be maximized. They are the real income, the producer income and the owner income. Producer income and owner income are practical quantities because they are addable quantities and they can be computed quite easily. Real income is normally not an addable quantity and in many cases it is difficult to calculate. Here we have to add that the change of real income can also be computed from the changes in income distribution. We have to identify the unit price changes of outputs and inputs and calculate their profit impacts (i.e. unit price change x quantity). The change of real income is the sum of these profit impacts and the change of owner income. This approach is called the dual approach because the framework is seen in terms of prices instead of quantities (ONS 3, 23). The dual approach has been recognized in growth accounting for long but its interpretation has remained unclear. The following question has remained unanswered: “Quantity based estimates of the residual are interpreted as a shift in the production function, but what is the interpretation of the price-based growth estimates?” (Hulten 2009, 18). We have demonstrated above that the real income change is achieved by quantitative changes in production and the income distribution change to the stakeholders is its dual. In this case the duality means that the same accounting result is obtained by accounting the change of the total income generation (real income) and by accounting the change of the total income distribution.
National productivity In order to measure productivity of a nation or an industry, it is necessary to operationalize the same concept of productivity as in a production unit or a company, yet, the object of modelling is substantially wider and the information more aggregate. The calculations of productivity of a nation or an industry are based on the time series of the SNA, System of National Accounts. National accounting is a system based on the recommendations of the UN (SNA 93) to measure total production and total income of a nation and how they are used. (Saari 2006, 9) Productivity is considered a key source of economic growth and competitiveness and, as such, is basic statistical information for many international comparisons and country performance assessments. There are different measures of productivity and the choice between them depends either on the purpose of the productivity measurement and/or data availability. One of the most widely used measures of productivity is Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per hour worked. (OECD 2008,11) Another productivity measure is so called multi factor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity (TFP). It measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation. (OECD 2008,11) Productivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and there is strong interest in comparing them internationally. The OECD[6] publishes an annual Compendium of Productivity Indicatorsthat includes both labor and multi-factor measures of productivity. Several statistical offices publish productivity accounting handbooks and manuals with detailed accounting instructions and definitions. For example the following:
- Measuring Productivity - OECD Manual
- Office for National Statistics (UK) Productivity handbook
- Bureau of Labor Statistics, Productivity Statistics (U.S.)
Multifactor productivity The multifactor productivity model is an application of the growth accounting model depicted above. Multifactor productivity is the ratio of the real value of output to the combined input of labor and capital. Multi-factor productivity (MFP) is also known as total factor productivity (TFP) and it measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation. (OECD 2008,11). Historically there is a correlation of TPF with energy conversion efficiency.Accounting procedure Multifactor productivity (MFP) is the name given to the Solow residual in the BLS productivity program, replacing the term “total factor productivity” (TFP) used in the earlier literature, and both terms continue in use (usually interchangeably) (Hulten 2009,7). The MFP measure can be compactly introduced with an accounting procedure in the following calculation. We can use the fixed price values of the real process in the productivity model above to show the accounting procedure. Fixed price values of the real process depict commensurate volumes of the outputs and inputs. When we subtract from the output so called intermediate inputs we obtain the value-added. Value-added is used as an output in MFP measure. The principle is to compare the growth of the value-added to the growth of labour and capital input. The formula of the MFP growth is as follows (Schreyer 2005,7):
- change of MFP = change of output (1.119)
- minus change of labour input x cost share of labour (1.150 x 0.475 = 0.546)
- minus change of capital input x cost share of capital (1.030 x 0.525 = 0.541)
As an accounting result the MFP growth is 1.119-0.546-0.541=0.032 or 3.2%.
Importance of national productivity growth Productivity growth is a crucial source of growth in living standards. Productivity growth means more value is added in production and this means more income is available to be distributed. At a firm or industry level, the benefits of productivity growth can be distributed in a number of different ways: to the workforce through better wages and conditions; to shareholders and superannuation funds through increased profits and dividend distributions to customers through lower prices; to the environment through more stringent environmental protection; and to governments through increases in tax payments (which can be used to fund social and environmental programs). Productivity growth is important to the firm because it means that it can meet its (perhaps growing) obligations to workers, shareholders, and governments (taxes and regulation), and still remain competitive or even improve its competitiveness in the market place.
bring additional inputs into production; or increase productivity. There are essentially two ways to promote growth in output: Adding more inputs will not increase the income earned per unit of input (unless there are increasing returns to scale). In fact, it is likely to mean lower average wages and lower rates of profit. But, when there is productivity growth, even the existing commitment of resources generates more output and income. Income generated per unit of input increases. Additional resources are also attracted into production and can be profitably employed. At the national level, productivity growth raises living standards because more real income improves people's ability to purchase goods and services (whether they are necessities or luxuries), enjoy leisure, improve housing and education and contribute to social and environmental programs. Over long periods of time, small differences in rates of productivity growth compound, like interest in a bank account, and can make an enormous difference to a society's prosperity. Nothing contributes more to reduction of poverty, to increases in leisure, and to the country's ability to finance education, public health, environment and the arts’.
Sources of productivity growth The most famous description of the productivity sources is that of Solow’s (1957): ”I am using the phrase ’technical change’ as a shorthand expression for any kind of shift in the production function. Thus slowdowns, speed ups, improvements in the education of the labor force and all sorts of things will appear as ’technical change’ ” Since then more specific descriptions of productivity sources have emerged referring to investment, innovations, skills, enterprise and competition (ONS 3, 20).
Drivers of productivity growth There is a general understanding of the main determinants – or “drivers” – of productivity growth. Certain factors are critical for determining productivity growth. The Office for National Statistics (UK) identifies five drivers that interact to underlie long-term productivity performance: investment, innovation, skills, enterprise and competition. (ONS 3, 20) Investment is in physical capital - machinery, equipment and buildings. The more capital workers have at their disposal, generally the better they are able to do their jobs, producing more and better quality output. Innovation is the successful exploitation of new ideas. New ideas can take the form of new technologies, new products or new corporate structures and ways of working. Such innovations can boost productivity, for example as better equipment works faster and more efficiently, or better organisation increases motivation at work. Skills are defined as the quantity and quality of labour of different types available in an economy. Skills complement physical capital, and are needed to take advantage of investment in new technologies and organisational structures. Enterprise is defined as the seizing of new business opportunities by both start-ups and existing firms. New enterprises compete with existing firms by new ideas and technologies increasing competition. Entrepreneurs are able to combine factors of production and new technologies forcing existing firms to adapt or exit the market. Competition improves productivity by creating incentives to innovate and ensures that resources are allocated to the most efficient firms. It also forces existing firms to organise work more effectively through imitations of organisational structures and technology.
Productivity improving technologies In the most immediate sense, productivity is determined by: the available technology or know-how for converting resources into outputs desired in an economy; and the way in which resources are organised in firms and industries to produce goods and services. Average productivity can improve as firms move toward the best available technology; plants and firms with poor productivity performance cease operation; and as new technologies become available. Firms can change organisational structures (e.g. core functions and supplier relationships), management systems and work arrangements to take the best advantage of new technologies and changing market opportunities. A nation's average productivity level can also be affected by the movement of resources from low-productivity to high-productivity industries and activities. with increase pressure from the international or National productivity growth stems from a complex interaction of factors. As just outlined, some of the most important immediate factors include technological change, organisational change, industry restructuring and resource reallocation, as well as economies of scale and scope. Over time, other factors such as research and development and innovative effort, the development of human capital through education, and incentives from stronger competition promote the search for productivity improvements and the ability to achieve them. Ultimately, many policy, institutional and cultural factors determine a nation's success in improving productivity.
Productivity articles with a special focus The purpose of this main article is to describe the theory of productivity and to make the concept of productivity a measureable quantity. Other interesting aspects of productivity are presented in the articles with a special focus to productivity.
Productivity in practice Productivity is one of the main concerns of business management and engineering. Practically all companies have established procedures for collecting, analyzing and reporting the necessary data. Typically the accounting department has overall responsibility for collecting and organizing and storing the data, but some data normally originates in the various departments. Despite the proliferation of computers, productivity growth was relatively slow from the 1970s through the early 1990s. Although several possible cause for the slowdown have been proposed there is no consensus. The matter is subject to a continuing debate that has grown beyond questioning whether just computers can significantly increase productivity to whether the potential to increase productivity is becoming exhausted. Measurement of partial productivity refers to the measurement solutions which do not meet the requirements of total productivity measurement, yet, being practicable as indicators of total productivity. In practice, measurement in production means measures of partial productivity. In that case, the objects of measurement are components of total productivity, and interpreted correctly, these components are indicative of productivity development. The term of partial productivity illustrates well the fact that total productivity is only measured partially – or approximately. In a way, measurements are defective but, by understanding the logic of total productivity, it is possible to interpret correctly the results of partial productivity and to benefit from them in practical situations.
Kerala (38,863 km²; 1.18% of India’s landmass) is situated between the Arabian Sea to the west and the Western Ghats to the east. Kerala’s coast runs some 580 km in length, while the state itself varies between 35–120 km in width. Geographically, Kerala roughly divides into three climatically distinct regions. These include the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal plains). Located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent, Kerala lies near the center of the Indian tectonic plate (the Indian Plate); as such most of the state (notwithstanding isolated regions) is subject to comparatively little seismic or volcanic activity. Geologically, pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene formations comprise the bulk of Kerala’s terrain. The topography consists of a hot and wet coastal plain gradually rising in elevation to the high hills and mountains of the Western Ghats. Kerala lies between north latitudes 8°.17'.30" N and 12°. 47'.40" N and east longitudes 74°.27'47" E and 77°.37'.12" E.[2] Kerala’s climate is mainly wet and maritime tropical, heavily influenced by the seasonal heavy rains brought by the monsoon.
Climate Geography
Kerala, which lies in the tropic region, is mostly subject to the type of humid tropical wet climate experienced by most of Earth's rainforests. Meanwhile, its extreme eastern fringes experience a drier tropical wet and dry climate. Kerala receives an average annual rainfall of 3107 mm – some 7,030 crore m3 of water. This compares to the all-India average is 1,197 mm. Parts of Kerala's lowlands may average only 1250 mm annually while the cool mountainous eastern highlands of Idukki district – comprising Kerala's wettest region – receive in excess of 5,000 mm of orographic precipitation (4,200 crore of which are available for human use) annually. Kerala's rains are mostly the result of seasonal monsoons. As a result, Kerala averages some 120–140 rainy days per year. In summer, most of Kerala is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, and torrential downpours accompanying dangerous cyclones coming in off the Indian Ocean. Kerala’s average maximum daily temperature is around 36.7 °C; the minimum is 19.8 °C.
Eastern Kerala consists of land encroached upon by the Western Ghats; the region thus includes high mountains, gorges, and deep-cut valleys. The wildest lands are covered with dense forests, while other regions lie under tea and coffee plantations (established mainly in the 19th and 20th centuries) or other forms of cultivation. Forty-one of Kerala’s forty-four rivers originate in this region, and the Cauvery River descends from there and drains eastwards into neighboring states. Here, the Western Ghats form a wall of mountains penetrated near Palakkad; here, a natural mountain pass known as the Palakkad Gap breaks through to access inner India. The Western Ghats rises on average to 1500 m elevation above sea level. Certain peaks may reach to 2500 m. Just west of the mountains lie the midland plains, comprising a swathe of land running along central Kerala. Here, rolling hills and shallow valleys fill a gentler landscape than the highlands. In the lowest lands, the midlands region hosts paddy fields; meanwhile, elevated lands slopes play host to groves of rubber and fruit trees in addition to other crops such asblack pepper, tapioca, and others.
Lakes
Finally, Kerala’s coastal belt is relatively flat, teeming with paddy fields, groves of coconut trees, and heavily crisscrossed by a network of interconnected canals and rivers. The comparative water-richness of the coastal belt can be partly gauged by the fact that Kuttanad, with its backwaters canals and rivers, itself comprises more than 20% of India's waterways by length. The most important of Kerala’s forty-four rivers include the Periyar (244 km in length), the Bharathapuzha (209 km), the Pamba (176 km), the Chalakudy Puzha(144 km), the Kadalundipuzha (130 km), and the Achancoil (128 km). Most of the remainder are small and entirely fed by the Monsoons.
- Akkulam Kayal
- Ashtamudi Kayal
- Cherukali Kayal
- Kayamkulam Kayal
- Mala Kayal
- Manur Kayal
- Meenappally Kayal
- Paravur Kayal
- Thottappally Kayal
- Vattak Kayal
- Veli Kayal
- Vellayani Kayal
- Vembanad Kayal
- Beppur Kayal
- Kavvai Kayal
LandslidesThe highlands of Kerala experience several types of landslides, of which debris flows are the most common. They are called ‘Urul Pottal’ in the local vernacular. The characteristic pattern of this phenomenon is the swift and sudden downslope movement of highly water saturated overburden containing a varied assemblage of debris material ranging in size from soil particles to boulders, destroying and carrying with it every thing that is lying in its path. The west facing Western Ghats scarps that runs the entire extent of the mountain system is the most prone physiographic unit for landslides. These scarp faces are characterised by thin soil (regolith) cover modified heavily by anthropogenic activity. The highlands of the region experience an annual average rainfall as high as 500 cm from the South-West, North-East and Pre-Monsoon showers. A review of ancient documents, investigation reports and news paper reports indicates a lesser rate of slope instability in the past; 29 major landslide events that occurred in the recent past was identified through the review. The processes leading to landslides were accelerated by anthropogenic disturbances such as deforestation since the early 18th century, terracing and obstruction of ephemeral streams and cultivation of crops lacking capability to add root cohesion in steep slopes. The events have become more destructive given the increasing vulnerability of population and property. Majority of mass movements have occurred in hill slopes >20° along the Western Ghats scarps, the only exception being the coastal cliffs. Studies conducted in the state indicates that prolonged and intense rainfall or more particularly a combination of the two and the resultant persistance and variations of pore pressure are the most important trigger of landslides.The initiation of most of the landslides were in typical hollows generally having degraded natural vegetation. All except 1 of the 14 districts in the state are prone to landslides. Wayanad and Kozhikode districts are prone to deep seated landslides while Idukki and Kottayam are prone to shallow landslides. A very recent study indicates that the additional cohesion provided by vegetation roots in soil is an important contributor to slope stability in the scarp faces of the Western Ghats of Kerala.
Kerala is prone to several natural hazards, the most common of them being landslides, flooding, lightning, drought, coastal erosion, earthquakes, Tsunami, wind fall and epidemics.
Flooding
Although the Kerala state does not experience floods as severe as in the Indo-Gangetic plains, incidence of floods in the State is becoming more frequent and severe. Continuous occurrence of high intensity rainfall for a few days is the primary factor contributing to the extreme floods in the State. Other factors include wrong landuse practices and mismanagement of the water resources and forests. The human interventions contributing to flood problems are predominantly in the form of reclamation of wetlands and water bodies, change in landuse pattern, construction of dense networks of roads, establishment of more and more settlements, deforestation in the upper catchments etc. Increasing floodplain occupancy results in increasing flood damages. Urban floods result from blocked or inadequate storm sewers and due to increased urbanization. A number of extreme flood events occurred during the last century causing considerable damage to life and property highlight the necessity for proper flood management measures in the State. The flood problems are likely to worsen with the continued floodplain occupancy and reclamation of water bodies and wetlands. It is estimated that about 25% of the total geographical area accommodating about 18% of the total population of the State is prone to floods.
Lightning
Kerala is a place of high lightning incidence compared to most of the other parts in India because of its weather patterns and the location of the Western Ghats. Higher population density and vegetation density result in more casualties. Lack of awareness also aggravates the situation. Accidents caused by ground conduction from trees, which is a special feature of Kerala, add to the casualties and loss of property. The records show that the months April, May, October and November have the highest lightning rates. The most active time of the day is from 15:00 to 19:00. Of the fourteen districts, five have much higher rates than others. The severe impact of the hazard on the state and its people is seen from the very high average casualty rates of 71 deaths, 112 injuries and 188 accidents per annum. Losses to telephone commumications, networked systems and electrical equipment are also very high.
DroughtTsunami
Kerala has been experiencing increasing incidents of drought in the recent past due to the weather anomalies and developmental pressures resulting from the changes in land use, traditional practices, and life style of the people. The increase in population and subsequent expansion in irrigated agriculture, and industrial growth necessitated the exploitation of more water resources. The changes in the land and water management practices affected the fresh water availability during summer months. Although the deviation in the annual rainfall received in Kerala, in any year from the long term average is very small, there is considerable variation in the rainfall availability during the different seasons. About 95 percent of annual rainfall is confined to a six-month monsoon period between June and November, leaving the remaining six months as practically dry. Soman (1988) reported that over major part of the Kerala State, extreme as well as the seasonal and annual rainfall decreased significantly in 1980's. The maximum decrease in rainfall occurred in the highland regions where the rainfall is more compared to other areas. The changes in rainfall pattern may have association with the environmental modifications due to human interventions on the natural ecosystems. The State of Kerala experiences seasonal drought conditions every year during the summer months. Even in the years of normal rainfall, summer water scarcity problems are severe in the midland and highland regions. Severe drought conditions often result from the anomalies in monsoon rainfall combined with the various anthropogenic pressures. A study on the incidence of droughts based on the aridity index shows that during the period 1871– 2000, the State of Kerala experienced 66 drought years, out of which, twelve each were moderate and severe droughts. The droughts have a large dimension of economic, environmental and social impacts. With the implementation of a number of irrigation projects, the idea of drought in Kerala slowly shifted to unirrigated paddy, and upland crops. The water scarcity in summer is mainly reflected in dry rivers and lowering of water table. This adversely affects the rural and urban drinking water supply. As seen in the majority of drought incidents, even a 20% fall in the northeast monsoon, can make the water scarcity situation worse during the summer. Since the State has more of perennial plantation crops compared to other places of India, the effect of a drought year in Kerala continues to be felt for several more years after it has occurred. Thus, for better planning of the drought management measures, the term drought with reference to plantation crops should be redefined based on rainfall received or available soil moisture during summer months instead of total monsoon rainfall.
The Kerala coast was significantly affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The coast located in the shadow zone with respect to the direction of propagation of the tsunami encountered unexpected devastation. Although the tsunami affected parts of Kerala coast, maximum devastation was reported in the low coastal land of Kollam, Alleppey and Ernakulam districts, particularly a strip of 10 km in Azhikkal, Kollam district. This varying effect along the coast could be attributed to local amplification of tsunami waves in certain regions. About 176 people were killed and 1600 injured in the coastal belt. Further, the tsunami pounded 187 villages affecting nearly 25 lakh persons in Kerala. As many as 6,280 dwelling units were completely destroyed, 11,175 were damaged and nearly 84,773 persons were evacuated from the coastal areas and accommodated in 142 relief camps after tsunami. As this tsunami is believed to be first of its kind to have significantly affected the Kerala coast, the post-tsunami field investigations and measurements would give valuable information on various changes brought by the tsunami. Immediately after the tsunami, several organizations have carried out field surveys in many affected areas along the coast. Western GhatsThe Western Ghats or the Sahyādri constitute a mountain range along the western side of India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight hottest hotspots of biological diversity in the world. It is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south along the western edge of the Deccan Plateau, and separates the plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea.The range starts near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, south of the Tapti river, and runs approximately 1,600 km (990 mi) through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala ending at Kanyakumari, at the southern tip of India.These hills cover 160,000 km2 (62,000 sq mi) and form the catchment area for complex riverine drainage systems that drain almost 40% of India. The Western Ghats block rainfall to the Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200 m (3,900 ft).The area is one of the world's ten "Hottest biodiversity hotspots" and has over 5000 species of flowering plants, 139 mammal species, 508 bird species and 179 amphibian species; it is likely that many undiscovered species live in the Western Ghats. At least 325 globallythreatened species occur in the Western Ghats. Geology
The Western Ghats are not true mountains, but are the faulted edge of the Deccan Plateau. They are believed to have been formed during the break-up of the super continent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago. Geophysicists Barron and Harrison from the University of Miamiadvocate the theory that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar. After the break-up, the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt cliff some 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in elevation. Basalt is the predominant rock found in the hills reaching a depth of 3 km (2 mi). Other rock types found are charnockites, granite gneiss,khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of crystalline limestone, iron ore, dolerites and anorthosites. Residual laterite and bauxite ores are also found in the southern hills Mountains
The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north, go south past Maharashtra, Goa, through Karnataka and into Kerala andTamil Nadu. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Nilgiri Hills and the Anaimalai Hills.
- Hill ranges
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- Animal hills
South of the Palghat Gap are the Anaimalai Hills, in western Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Smaller ranges are further south, including the Cardamom Hills. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi peak 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) in Kerala the highest peak in Western Ghats. Chembra Peak 2,100 metres (6,890 ft), Banasura Peak 2,073 metres (6,801 ft), Vellarimala 2,200 metres (7,218 ft) and Agasthya mala 1,868 metres (6,129 ft) are also inKerala. Doddabetta in the Nilgiri Hills is 2,637 metres (8,652 ft). Mullayanagiri is the highest peak in Karnataka 1,950 metres (6,398 ft). The Western Ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu is home to many tea and coffee plantations.
Peaks
Following is a list of some of the highest peaks of the Western Ghats:
Rivers The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India, feeding the perennial rivers of India. Important rivers include the Godavari,Krishna and Kaveri. These rivers flow to the east and drain out into the Bay of Bengal. The west flowing rivers, that drain into the Arabian Sea, are fast-moving, owing to the short distance travelled and steeper gradient. Important rivers include the Mandovi and Zuari. Many of these rivers feed the backwaters of Kerala and Maharashtra. Rivers that flow eastwards of the Ghats drain into the Bay of Bengal. These are comparatively slower moving and eventually merge into larger rivers such as the Kaveri and Krishna. The larger tributaries include theTunga River, Bhadra river, Bhima River, Malaprabha River, Ghataprabha River, Hemavathi river, Kabini River. In addition there are several smaller rivers such as the Chittar River, Manimuthar River, Kallayi River, Kundali River, Pachaiyar River, Pennar River, Periyar and theKallayi River. Fast running rivers and steep slopes have provided sites for many large hydro-electric projects. There are about 50 major dams along the length of the Western Ghats with the earliest project up in 1900 near Khopoli in Maharashtra.Most notable of these projects are theKoyna Hydroelectric Project in Maharashtra, the Parambikulam Dam in Kerala, and the Linganmakki Dam in Karnataka. The reservoir behind the Koyna Dam, the Shivajisagar Lake, has a length of 50 km (31 mi) and depth of 80 m (262 ft). It is the largest hydroelectric project in Maharashtra, generating 1,920 MW of electric power. Another major Hydro Electric project is Idukki dam in Kerala. This dam is one of the biggest in Asia and generates around 70% of power for Kerala state. Mullai Periyar dam near Thekkady is one of the oldest in the world and a major tourist attractions in Kerala. Water from this dam is drawn to the vast coastal plain of Tamil Nadu, forming a delta and making it rich in vegetation. During the monsoon season, numerous streams fed by incessant rain drain off the mountain sides leading to numerous and often spectacular waterfalls. Among the most well known is the Jog Falls, Kunchikal Falls, Sivasamudram Falls, and Unchalli Falls. The Jog Falls is the highest natural plunge waterfall in South Asia and is listed among the 1001 natural wonders of the world.] Talakaveri wildlife sanctuary is a critical watershed and the source of the river Kaveri. This region has dense evergreen and semi-evergreen vegetation, with shola-grassland in areas of higher elevation. The steep terrain of the area has resulted in scenic waterfalls along its many mountain streams. Sharavathi and Someshvara Wildlife sanctuaries in Shimoga district are the source of the Tungabhadra River system.TheNetravathi river has also its origin at western ghats of India flowing westwards to join Arabian sea at Mangalore.
Climate
During the monsoon season between June and September, the unbroken Western Ghats chain acts as a barrier to the moisture laden clouds. The heavy, eastward-moving rain-bearing clouds are forced to rise and in the process deposit most of their rain on the windward side. Rainfall in this region averages 3,000–4,000 mm (120–160 in) with localised extremes touching 9,000 mm (350 in). The eastern region of the Western Ghats which lie in the rain shadow, receive far less rainfall averaging about 1,000 mm (40 in) bringing the average rainfall figure to 2,500 mm (150 in). Data from rainfall figures reveal that there is no relationship between the total amount of rain received and the spread of the area. Some areas to the north in Maharashtra while receiving heavier rainfall are followed by long dry spells, while regions closer to the equator receiving less annual rainfall, have rain spells lasting almost the entire year.
Ecoregions
Biome protection
The area is ecologically sensitive to development and was declared an ecological hotspot in 1988 through the efforts of ecologist Norman Myers. Though this area covers barely five percent of India's land, 27% of all species of higher plants in India (4,000 of 15,000 species) are found here. Almost 1,800 of these are endemic to the region. The range is home to at least 84 amphibian species, 16 bird species, seven mammals, and 1,600 flowering plants which are not found elsewhere in the world.